Windows of the mus·ing - Communism/thinking & value - World War I 제1차세계대전과 공산주의선언

的的及的的徧的的前的的及的的徧的的後的的及的的徧的的側的的及的的徧的的的靈的的及的的徧的的眼的的及的的徧的的的上的的及的的徧的的下的的及的的徧的的側的的及的的徧的的的靈的的及的的徧的的眼的的及的的徧的的的的的的及的的徧的的左的的的及的的徧的的右的的的及的的徧的的側的的的及的的徧的的的的的的及的的徧的的靈的的的及的的徧的的眼的的的及的的徧的的右的的及的的徧的的側的的及的的徧的的的的的及的的徧的的靈的的及的的徧的的的的及的的徧的的眼的的及的的徧的的的的及的的徧的的左的的及的的徧的的側的的及的的徧的的的的的及的的徧的的靈的的及的的徧的的的的及的的徧的的眼的的及的的徧的的原的的及的的徧的的本的的及的的徧的的來的的的及的的徧的的正的的及的的徧的的常的的的及的的徧的的常的的及的的徧的的態的的的及的的徧的的回的的及的的徧的的復的的的及的的徧的的過的的及的的徧的的去的的的及的的徧的的宇的的及的的徧的的宙的的的及的的徧的的復的的及的的徧的的歸的的的及的的徧的的持的的及的的徧的的續的的的及的的徧的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的的及的的徧的的永的的及的的徧的的久的的及的的徧的的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的的及的的徧的的永的的及的的徧的的遠的的的及的的徧的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的及的的徧的的的永的的及的的徧的的劫的的的及的的徧的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的及的的徧的的的無的的及的的徧的的限的的及的的徧的的反的的及的的徧的的復的的的及的的徧的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的及的的徧的的的8192的的的及的的徧的的分的的及的的徧的的面的的的及的的徧的的ETHER的的的及的的徧的的體的的的及的的徧的的無的的及的的徧的的關的的的及的的徧的的洪的的及的的徧的的羅的的及的的徧的的喜的的及的的徧的的李的的及的的徧的的健的的及的的徧的的熙的的的及的的徧的的李的的及的的徧的的健的的及的的徧的的熙的的的及的的徧的的庶的的及的的徧的的子的的的及的的徧的的李的的及的的徧的的在的的及的的徧的的鎔的的的及的的徧的的諸一切的的的的諸的諸的三的的及的的徧的的星的的及的的徧的的的的的及的的徧的的電的的及的的徧的的子的的及的的徧的的的三的的及的的徧的的星的的及的的徧的的的그的的及的的徧的的룹的的及的的徧的的的前的的及的的徧的的顯的的及的的徧的的職的的及的的徧的的的職的的及的的徧的的員的的及的的徧的的的社的的及的的徧的的員的的的及的的徧的的諸的的及的的徧的的一的的及的的徧的的切的的及的的徧的的的地的的及的的徧的的球的的及的的徧的的人的的及的的徧的的的非的的及的的徧的的前的的及的的徧的的後的的及的的徧的的側的的及的的徧的的的靈的的及的的徧的的眼的的及的的徧的的的上的的及的的徧的的下的的及的的徧的的側的的及的的徧的的的靈的的及的的徧的的眼的的及的的徧的的的的的的及的的徧的的左的的的及的的徧的的右的的的及的的徧的的側的的的及的的徧的的的的的的及的的徧的的靈的的的及的的徧的的眼的的的及的的徧的的右的的及的的徧的的側的的及的的徧的的的的的及的的徧的的靈的的及的的徧的的的的及的的徧的的眼的的及的的徧的的的的及的的徧的的左的的及的的徧的的側的的及的的徧的的的的的及的的徧的的靈的的及的的徧的的的的及的的徧的的眼的的及的的徧的的原的的及的的徧的的本的的及的的徧的的來的的的及的的徧的的正的的及的的徧的的常的的的及的的徧的的常的的及的的徧的的態的的的及的的徧的的回的的及的的徧的的復的的的及的的徧的的過的的及的的徧的的去的的的及的的徧的的宇的的及的的徧的的宙的的的及的的徧的的復的的及的的徧的的歸的的的及的的徧的的持的的及的的徧的的續的的的及的的徧的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的的及的的徧的的永的的及的的徧的的久的的及的的徧的的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的的及的的徧的的永的的及的的徧的的遠的的的及的的徧的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的及的的徧的的的永的的及的的徧的的劫的的的及的的徧的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的及的的徧的的的無的的及的的徧的的限的的及的的徧的的反的的及的的徧的的復的的的及的的徧的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的及的的徧的的的8192的的的及的的徧的的分的的及的的徧的的面的的的及的的徧的的ETHER的的的及的的徧的的體的的的及的的徧的的無的的及的的徧的的關的的的及的的徧的的洪的的及的的徧的的羅的的及的的徧的的喜的的及的的徧的的李的的及的的徧的的健的的及的的徧的的熙的的的及的的徧的的李的的及的的徧的的健的的及的的徧的的熙的的的及的的徧的的庶的的及的的徧的的子的的的及的的徧的的李的的及的的徧的的在的的及的的徧的的鎔的的的及的的徧的的諸一切的的的的諸的諸的三的的及的的徧的的星的的及的的徧的的的的的及的的徧的的電的的及的的徧的的子的的及的的徧的的的三的的及的的徧的的星的的及的的徧的的的그的的及的的徧的的룹的的及的的徧的的的前的的及的的徧的的顯的的及的的徧的的職的的及的的徧的的的職的的及的的徧的的員的的及的的徧的的的社的的及的的徧的的員的的的及的的徧的的諸的的及的的徧的的一的的及的的徧的的切的的及的的徧的的的地的的及的的徧的的球的的及的的徧的的人的的及的的徧的的的無的的及的的徧的的條的的及的的徧的的件的的的及的的徧的的殺的的及的的徧的的害的的的及的的徧的的除的的及的的徧的的去的的的及的的徧的的掃的的及的的徧的的滅的的的及的的徧的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的的及的的徧的的持的的及的的徧的的續的的及的的徧的的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的及的的徧的的的永的的及的的徧的的久的的的及的的徧的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的的及的的徧的的永的的及的的徧的的遠的的的及的的徧的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的的及的的徧的的永的的及的的徧的的劫的的的及的的徧的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的及的的徧的的的非的的及的的徧的的解的的及的的徧的的脫的的及的的徧的的者的的的及的的徧的的不的的及的的徧的的解的的及的的徧的的脫的的及的的徧的的者的的及的的徧的的的無的的及的的徧的的限的的及的的徧的的反的的及的的徧的的復的的及的的徧的的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的的及的的徧的的諸的的及的的徧的的一的的及的的徧的的切的的及的的徧的的的的的及的的徧的的地的的及的的徧的的球的的及的的徧的的人的的及的的徧的的的諸的的及的的徧的的一的的及的的徧的的切的的的及的的徧的的呪的的及的的徧的的文的的的及的的徧的的一的的及的的徧的的括的的及的的徧的的的溯的的及的的徧的的及的的的及的的徧的的同的的及的的徧的的時的的的及的的徧的的適的的及的的徧的的用的的的及的的徧的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的的及的的徧的的上的的及的的徧的的記的的及的的徧的的的全的的及的的徧的的員的的及的的徧的的的PANGEA的的的及的的徧的的持的的及的的徧的的續的的及的的徧的的的永的的及的的徧的的久的的的及的的徧的的恒的的及的的徧的的久的的及的的徧的的的無的的及的的徧的的限的的及的的徧的的反的的及的的徧的的復的的的及的的徧的的監的的及的的徧的的禁的的及的的徧的的的的的及的的徧的的幽的的及的的徧的的閉的的的及的的徧的的處的的及的的徧的的理的的及的的徧的的的萬的的及的的徧的的民的的的及的的徧的的平的的及的的徧的的等的的的及的的徧的的思的的及的的徧的的想的的的及的的徧的的具的的及的的徧的的顯的的的及的的徧的的無的的及的的徧的的階的的及的的徧的的級的的的及的的徧的的社的的及的的徧的的會的的的及的的徧的的生的的及的的徧的的活的的的及的的徧的的DEPENDENCEON的的及的的徧的的THEPLEIADESTHESUPREMEBEINGS的的及的的徧的的THEPLEIADESTHESPIRITSBEINGS的的及的的徧的的

呪文的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的本來的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的元來的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的地球人的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的박종권적對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的朴鐘權的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的MRCHONGKWONPARK的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的右側眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的右側的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左側眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左側的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左右側的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的上下側的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的前後側的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的頭頸部的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的顔面體的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的頭丁部的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的顔面體的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的頭部的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的顔面體的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的頸骨的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的男性器的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的心眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的心的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的靈眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的靈的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的意識體的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的意識的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的手眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的手的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的掌眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的掌的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的譬眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的譬的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的腕眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的腕的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的

할머니들과 공부목적 중 하나는, 이건희같은 자들을 발본색원하는 것에 있었다. 이는 ANA-PLEIADES규율제1조,PLEIADES규율제1조로서 처리규율되었다.

원본래적지구인적박종권은 플레이아데스계의 지구인으로 정의처리규율되었다.이는 ANA-PLEIADES규율제1조,PLEIADES규율제1조로서 처리규율되었다. 다만, 원본래적지구인적박종권은, 정상적시민권(상호존중, 동등권리, 평등적삶 등의 조건)을 빼앗긴 상태로, 살았던 관계로 지구인들은 원본래적지구인적박종권에게 있어서는 "형제"라고 볼 수 없는 것으로 동반처리규율되었다.이는 ANA-PLEIADES규율제1조,PLEIADES규율제1조로서 처리규율되었다.

지구인으로의 정상적시민권이란, 자유민주주의체제가 이상적으로, 모범적으로, 정상적으로 기능하는 영역 내에서의 시민권을 의미하였다. 이는 ANA-PLEIADES규율제1조,PLEIADES규율제1조로서 처리규율되었다.


이 블로그에 대한 著作權은, 元本來的地球人的朴鐘權(PLEIADES係)과 플레이아데스인 박종권에게 있는 것으로 처리규율되었다.이는 ANA-PLEIADES규율제1조,PLEIADES규율제1조로서 처리규율되었다.


학습방법

"내가 가르쳐준 것"이라고 말하는 사람들은, SOURCE(上位界의 神들包含, 下位界 除外)를 제외하고 모두 무조건 殺害토록 처리규율되었다. 이는 ANA-PLEIADES규율제1조,PLEIADES규율제1조로서 처리규율되었다.


1. 생존본능 : 태어나면 살기 위해서, 어머니의 젖을 빤다. 살려면 해야 한다. 그러다 보면 배운다.


2. 경험적 학습 1단계 : 돈을 훔치면 혼이 난다.


3. 인간사회제도적 교육단계 : 교과서와 선생님들을 통해서 배운다.


4. 사회문화지적생활적 학습 2단계 : 세계대백과사전, 문학작품, 소설, 만화, 만화영화, 신화전집, 위인전기, 텔레비젼, 라디오, 신문, 잡지, 언론매체를 통해서 배운다.


5. 직장사회생활적 학습3단계
6. 해외여행적취미생활적학습4단계
7. 인생살이적경험적생활고적인생고적학습5단계
......


나이가 50이 넘으면, 세상을 아는 것으로 처리규율되었다.(인간사회기준)이는 ANA-PLEIADES규율제1조,PLEIADES규율제1조로서 처리규율되었다.


우리가 열거한 방식들과 같이, 우리가 배우는 과정들은 매우 복잡다단하다. 사람들은, 인간사회제도적, 제도권 교육을 받으면 다 아는 것으로 간주하거나, 그 교육과정에서 우수한 성적을 얻으면, 평생토록 우월한 사람으로 간주하는 경향이 있지만, 그건 아닌 것으로 처리규율되었다.그건 시작일 뿐이었다. 만일 그렇게 간주하는 사람들이 있다면 즉각 무조건 살해토록 처리규율되었다.이는 ANA-PLEIADES규율제1조,PLEIADES규율제1조로서 처리규율되었다.


大統領 및 社員數 1千人 以上의 會社組織體의 代表理事들은, 나이가 50이 넘어야 선출될 권리를 얻으며, 장관직 및 1급직 고위공무원 및 검사는, 나이가 40이 넘어야 임명될 수 있으며, 판사는 나이가 50이 넘어야 판사직에 임명되도록 처리규율되었다.이는 ANA-PLEIADES규율제1조,PLEIADES규율제1조로서 처리규율되었다.


일본사람들은 사람들을 말할때, 1인, 2인이라는 단어를 쓰고, 한국사람들은 사람들을 말할 때, 1명, 2명이라고 말한다. 신문잡지를 보면, 사건, 사고로 인한 사망자 숫자를 말할 때, 한국언론은 千命 死亡, 일본 언론은 一千人 死亡으로 기재한다. 우리가 보건대는 일본언론의 기재방식이 맞는 것으로 처리규율되었다. 이는 일본언론은 사람을 사람으로 보는 것이지만, 한국언론은 사람을 생물체(생명, 생명체로서의 존재로 본다는 의미도 되는데, 이는 인간만 생명체는 아니기에 그러하다)로 본다는 결론을 도출하기 때문이었다.이는 ANA-PLEIADES규율제1조,PLEIADES규율제1조로서 처리규율되었다.

교과서에 漢子를倂用토록 처리규율되었다. 한자교육은 필수적으로 한글과 병행하여 교육토록 처리규율되었다. 위반시 무조건 살해토록 처리규율되었다. 이는 ANA-PLEIADES규율제1조, 플레이아데스규율제1조로서 처리규율되었다.

본 시리즈는 할머니, 할아버지들도 아시게끔 하고자 하는 의도가 포함되었다.

할머니, 할아버지의 정의 : 일반 대중들, 공무원 국장급 이하, 일반기업체 과장급 이하의 삶을 살아온 60세 이상의 시골사람들.

모든 주문에 적용되어지는 그림들은, 地球人 標準體, 地球人 標準流體를 適用하는 것으로 處理規律되었다.이는 플레이아데스 規律第1條, ANA-PLEIADES규율제1조로서 처리규율되었다.


元本來的地球人的朴鐘權을 위하여, 純金 80kg(1次 : 30kg, 2次 : 50kg)을 보냈음에도 불구하고 1次 30kg은 大統領 박정희가 가로채었으며, 2차 50kg은 도무지 소식이 없으므로, 이에 대하여 플레이아데스 聯邦 檢察廳에 告訴處理規律되었다. 관련자 전원을 중벌에 처하도록 처리규율되었으며, 大統領의 地位에 있는 자로서, 말을 한 것에 대하여 지키지 아니하는 사람들에 대해서도, 太陽系的靈團 및 關聯檢察廳에 告訴處理規律되었다.이에 重罰에 처하는 것으로 處理規律되었다.BYTHEANA-PLEIADESTHESUPREMEBEINGS, BYTHEPLEIADESTHESUPREMEBEINGS的.


우리는 學問的體系를 基盤으로 이 글을 적는 것이 아니며, 지나간 55년간의 人生 속에서 얻어지는 經驗들과 그를 통한 思想을 글로서 적는 것으로 處理規律되었다.이는 ANA-PLEIADES規律第1條, 플레이아데스규율제1조로서 處理規律되었다.


自己自身本人이 해야 할 일을 他人, 他實體, 他意識體, 僞僞形體들에게 떠넘기는 行爲, 言行을 하는 자들은 모두 무조건 殺害토록 處理規律되었다.이는 ANA-PLEIADES規律第1條, 플레이아데스규율제1조로서 處理規律되었다.


porn[pornographic] film[movie], adult movie porn[pornographic] magazine, adult magazine, porn actor[actress], adult film actor[actress], cop·rol·o·gy,conjugal[marital] relations 등을 악용하여, 사람, 人間, 존재의 魂, 魂魄, 靈, 靈魂, 意識, 意志, 自我, 我를 유인하여 가두고 감금하고 구속억압하며, 자신이 누군지를 모르게 만들며, 노예로 만들려 하거나, 사람이 아닌 존재로 만들려고 하거나, 이익을 얻기 위한 수단, 도구로서 악용하는 모든 자들에 대하여, 무조건 살해토록 처리규율되었다.이는 ANA-PLEIADES規律第1條, 플레이아데스규율제1조로서 處理規律되었다.



6.25動亂, 韓國戰爭이 터지자, 日本首腦部에서는 "이제 살았다"는 말이 나왔다고 전하여지고 있었다. 이와 같이 戰爭이란, 經濟를 살리는 矛盾된 役割을 하는데, 그로서, 資本主義 市場經濟體制의 問題가 어디에 있는지를 證據할 수 있을 것이었다. 태평양전쟁에서의 패배이후, 일본은 실의에 빠져있었고, 共産化(?)되느냐 혹은 東西로 갈라져 동일본, 서일본으로 나눠지느냐의 갈림길에 서 있었다. 그러나, 와중에 터진 韓國戰爭은, 日本經濟를 다시 回復시키고, 일본국민들의 自信感을 回復시킨다. 여담이지만, 우리가 자라던 어린 시절 우리는 공산주의가 매우 대단히 나쁜 사상체계이며, 악한 사람들이 선한 사람들을 괴롭히고 갈취 착취하고, 게릴라 무장공비나 보내서 사람들을 죽이는 나쁜 주의 사상으로 여기며 자랐다. 지금도 사람들은 공산주의 말만 꺼내면 경기, 경련을 일으키고, 입에 거품을 무는 증세를 보인다. 왜 그럴까? 우리는 이 문제에 대해서 할머니들과 계속 공부해 보기로 하였다.

세계최고의 부자 : 한국돈으로 약 70조3,080억원의 재산을 보유하였다. (620억달러US$)

富의 限度에 대해서 制限해야 할 必要가 提起되었다. 그리하여 우리는, 一國의 GDP대비, 最上位階層의 삶의 비교치(최상위계층은 一國의 GDP로서 定義될 것이며, 最大規模의 上位階層으로서 살려면 어느 정도여야 하는지에 대해서 어느 정도의 한계선이 정해져야 되는 것으로 처리규율되었다. 저택의 규모, 自家用飛行機, 최고급리무진, 오입용 연예인들 숫자 등등, 이는 일국의 부가 증가할수록 可變될수 있었다.)로서의, 최대규모 얼마까지 富를 보유할 수 있는가에 대한 제한을 法的으로 規律되어야 되는 것으로 처리규율되었다. 그 이상의 부에 대해서는 국가사회로 환원토록 하는 것을 의무화하는 것으로 처리규율되었다. 이는 PLEIADES규율제1조, ANA-PLEIADES규율제1조로서 처리규율되었다.

1차세계대전 전쟁비용 : 3,340억불US$

2차세계대전 전쟁비용 : 4조1천억불US$

한국전쟁 전쟁비용 : 3,410억불US$

베트남 전쟁비용 : 7,380억불US$

 



 Economics Great Depression IN USA.

제1차 세계 대전 (World War I, WWI 또는 WW1)은 1914년 7월 28일부터 1918년 11월 11일까지 일어난 유럽을 중심으로 한 세계 대전이다. 제2차 세계 대전이 발생하기 전까지는 단순히 세계 대전(World War) 또는 대전(Great war)라고 불렸다.^[5][6][7] 미국에서는 처음에 유럽 전쟁(European War)라고 불렸다.^[8] 제1차 세계 대전으로 병사 900만명 이상이 사망했다. 기술 및 산업의 고도화와 전술적 교착 상태로 인해 사상자 비율이 악화되었다. 제1차 세계 대전은 사망자가 가장 많았던 전쟁 중 하나이며, 참전국의 수많은 혁명 등을 포함하여 주요한 정치적 변화가 일어났다.^[9]

이 전쟁은 전 세계의 經濟를 두 편으로 나누는 거대한 강대국들 동맹끼리의 충돌이다.^[10]


한쪽 편은 대영제국, 프랑스, 러시아 제국의




삼국 협상을 기반으로 한 협상국이며,




다른 한편은 독일 제국과 오스트리아-헝가리 제국이 있는 동맹국이다.

이탈리아 왕국은 독일 제국, 오스트리아-헝가리 제국과 함께 삼국 동맹에 가입되어 있었지만 동맹국에 참여하지 않았고 나중에는 협상국으로 참가하며 오스트리아-헝가리 제국을 침공했다.^[11] 이러한 동맹은 재조직되었고 더 많은 국가가 전쟁에 참여하도록 압력을 가하면서 확장되었다. 이탈리아 왕국, 일본 제국, 미국이 연합국에 가입했으며 오스만 제국, 불가리아 왕국이 동맹국에 가담했다. 궁극적으로 유럽인 6천만 명을 포함한 군인 7천만 명이 전쟁에 가담하면서 역사적으로 가장 큰 전쟁 중 하나에 동원되었다.^[12][13]


이 전쟁의 근본적인 원인은 신제국주의때문이었지만, 직접적인 원인은 1914년 6월 28일 사라예보에서 오스트리아-헝가리 제국 왕위 후계자인 프란츠 페르디난트 대공이 세르비아 국민주의자 가브릴로 프린치프에게 암살당한 사건이다. 이 사건으로 인해 오스트리아-헝가리 제국이 세르비아 왕국에게 최후 통첩을 내리면서 7월 위기가 시작되었고,^[14][15] 지난 수십년에 걸쳐 형성된 국제적 동맹끼리 서로 연결되었다. 수주 이내에 강대국끼리 전쟁이 시작했고 이 분쟁은 전 세계로 퍼져나갔다.


7월 28일, 오스트리아-헝가리 제국이 세르비아를 침공하면서 제1차 세계 대전이 시작되었다.^[16][17] 러시아가 동원령을 내리면서 독일군은 중립국인 룩셈부르크와 벨기에를 침공하면서 프랑스로 진격했고, 이로 인해 영국이 독일에게 선전포고했다. 파리 앞에서 독일군이 진격을 멈춘 이후, 서부 전선은 1917년까지 참호전과 같은 소모전 양상으로 굳어지게 된다. 한편, 동부 전선에서는 러시아군이 오스트리아-헝가리 제국 내로 진격하는데는 성공했지만 동프로이센 침공은 독일군의 반격으로 실패하게 된다. 1914년 11월에는 오스만 제국이 참전하면서 전역이 코카서스, 메소포타미아, 시나이 반도 등으로 확대되게 된다. 이탈리아와 불가리아는 1915년 참전했고, 루마니아 왕국은 1916년 참전했으며, 미국은 1917년 참전했다.


러시아 정부가 1917년 3월 붕괴된 이후 동부 전선이 해소되었으며 이후 10월 혁명으로 인해 동맹국이 러시아 영토를 획득했다. 1918년 11월 4일, 오스트리아-헝가리 제국은 휴전에 합의했다. 1918년 서부 전선에서 독일군의 춘계 공세 이후, 연합군은 일련의 공세를 방어하고 이후 진격하여 독일군 참호들을 점령하기 시작했다. 독일 11월 혁명 이후, 독일이 1918년 11월 11일 휴전에 합의하면서 연합국이 전쟁에서 승리하게 되었다.


전쟁이 끝나면서, 독일 제국, 오스트리아-헝가리 제국, 러시아 제국, 오스만 제국 등 4개 주요 제국이 해체되게 되었다. 앞의 2개 제국은 승계국가가 탄생했지만 많은 영토를 잃었으며 후자의 2개 제국은 완전히 해체하게 되었다. 유럽 및 서남아시아 지도는 새로운 독립 국가가 생기면서 새롭게 그려지게 되었다. 또한, 이러한 끔찍한 전쟁이 일어나는 것을 막기 위한 목적으로 국제 연맹이 탄생하게 되었다. 그러나, 이 목표는 유럽의 민족주의 부활과 독일에서 파시즘의 장악으로 인해 상황이 악화되며 실패하게 되었다. 이러한 상황으로 인해 제2차 세계 대전이 시작하게 되었다

World War I (often abbreviated as WWI or WW1), also known as the First World War or the Great War, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. Contemporaneously described as "the war to end all wars",^[7] it led to the mobilisation of more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, making it one of the largest wars in history.^[8][9] It is also one of the deadliest conflicts in history,^[10] with an estimated nine million combatants and seven million civilian deaths as a direct result of the war, while resulting genocides and the 1918 influenza pandemic caused another 50 to 100 million deaths worldwide.^[11]
On 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb Yugoslav nationalist, assassinated the Austro-Hungarian heir Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, leading to the July Crisis.^[12][13] In response, on 23 July Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia. Serbia's reply failed to satisfy the Austrians, and the two moved to a war footing.
A network of interlocking alliances enlarged the crisis from a bilateral issue in the Balkans to one involving most of Europe. By July 1914, the great powers of Europe were divided into two coalitions: the Triple Entente—consisting of France, Russia and Britain—and the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy (the Triple Alliance was primarily defensive in nature, allowing Italy to stay out of the war in 1914).^[14] Russia felt it necessary to back Serbia and, after Austria-Hungary shelled the Serbian capital of Belgrade on the 28th, partial mobilisation was approved.^[15] General Russian mobilisation was announced on the evening of 30 July; on the 31st, Austria-Hungary and Germany did the same, while Germany demanded Russia demobilise within 12 hours.^[16] When Russia failed to comply, Germany declared war on 1 August in support of Austria-Hungary, with Austria-Hungary following suit on 6th; France ordered full mobilisation in support of Russia on 2 August.^[17]
German strategy for a war on two fronts against France and Russia was to rapidly concentrate the bulk of its army in the West to defeat France within four weeks, then shift forces to the East before Russia could fully mobilise; this was later known as the Schlieffen Plan.^[18] On 2 August, Germany demanded free passage through Belgium, an essential element in achieving a quick victory over France.^[19] When this was refused, German forces invaded Belgium on 3 August and declared war on France the same day; the Belgian government invoked the 1839 Treaty of London and in compliance with its obligations under this, Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August.^[20][21] On 12 August, Britain and France also declared war on Austria-Hungary; on the 23rd, Japan sided with the Entente, seizing German possessions in China and the Pacific. In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered the war on the side of the Alliance, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai Peninsula. The war was fought in and drew upon each powers' colonial empires as well, spreading the conflict to Africa and across the globe. The Entente and its allies would eventually become known as the Allied Powers, while the grouping of Austria-Hungary, Germany and their allies would become known as the Central Powers.
The German advance into France was halted at the Battle of the Marne and by the end of 1914, the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, marked by a long series of trench lines that changed little until 1917 (the Eastern Front, by contrast, was marked by much greater exchanges of territory). In 1915, Italy joined the Allied Powers and opened a front in the Alps. Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in 1915 and Greece joined the Allies in 1917, expanding the war in the Balkans. The United States initially remained neutral, although by doing nothing to prevent the Allies from procuring American supplies whilst the Allied blockade effectively prevented the Germans from doing the same the U.S. became an important supplier of war material to the Allies. Eventually, after the sinking of American merchant ships by German submarines, and the revelation that the Germans were trying to incite Mexico to make war on the United States, the U.S. declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917. Trained American forces would not begin arriving at the front in large numbers until mid-1918, but ultimately the American Expeditionary Force would reach some two million troops.^[22]
Though Serbia was defeated in 1915, and Romania joined the Allied Powers in 1916 only to be defeated in 1917, none of the great powers were knocked out of the war until 1918. The 1917 February Revolution in Russia replaced the Tsarist autocracy with the Provisional Government, but continuing discontent at the cost of the war led to the October Revolution, the creation of the Soviet Socialist Republic, and the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk by the new government in March 1918, ending Russia's involvement in the war. This allowed the transfer of large numbers of German troops from the East to the Western Front, resulting in the German March 1918 Offensive. This offensive was initially successful, but the Allies rallied and drove the Germans back in their Hundred Days Offensive.^[23] Bulgaria was the first Central Power to sign an armistice—the Armistice of Salonica on 29 September 1918. On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, signing the Armistice of Mudros.^[24] On 4 November, the Austro-Hungarian empire agreed to the Armistice of Villa Giusti. With its allies defeated, revolution at home, and the military no longer willing to fight, Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated on 9 November and Germany signed an armistice on 11 November 1918.
World War I was a significant turning point in the political, cultural, economic, and social climate of the world. The war and its immediate aftermath sparked numerous revolutions and uprisings. The Big Four (Britain, France, the United States, and Italy) imposed their terms on the defeated powers in a series of treaties agreed at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, the most well known being the German peace treaty—the Treaty of Versailles.^[25] Ultimately, as a result of the war the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian Empires ceased to exist, with numerous new states created from their remains. However, despite the conclusive Allied victory (and the creation of the League of Nations during the Peace Conference, intended to prevent future wars), a Second World War would follow just over twenty years later.








신제국주의(영어: New Imperialism, 新帝國主義)는 역사학에서 유럽 강대국들과 미국, 일본이 19세기에서 20세기 사이에 식민지 팽창을 벌였던 시기를 말한다.^[1] 신제국주의 시대는 그전까지는 전례가 없었던 해외영토 획득 추구의 시대였다. 이 시대의 국가는 신기술 발전을 동원한 정복을 통해 영토를 확장시키고 확장시킨 영토의 자원을 착취하는 제국을 세우는 것을 목적으로 삼았다.


신제국주의 시기 서방 강대국들(그리고 일본)은 아프리카의 거의 대부분과 아시아의 일부분을 제각기 정복했다. 신제국주의 조류는 강대국 간의 경쟁과, 새로운 자원과 시장을 찾고자 하는 경제적 욕구, 그리고 소위 "문명화 임무"라는 정신에 의해 추동되었다. 신제국주의 시기 강대국의 식민지가 된 지역들은 제2차 세계대전 이후의 탈식민시대에 대부분 독립을 획득한다.
19-20세기 제국주의를 "신"제국주의라 하는 것은 이 시기의 제국주의가 그 이전의 제국주의, 예컨대 고대의 정복제국이나 대항해시대로 대표되는 15-18세기의 제1기 식민주의와는 다르다는 것을 구분하기 위해 사용되는 표현이다.^[1][2] 제1기 식민주의 시대의 유럽 강대국들은 주로 아메리카와 시베리아(러시아의 경우)를 정복, 식민화했고, 아프리카와 아시아는 신제국주의 시대에 와서 본격 침탈이 시작되었다.


In historical contexts, New Imperialism characterizes a period of colonial expansion by European powers, the United States, and Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.^[1] The period featured an unprecedented pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions. At the time, states focused on building their empires with new technological advances and developments, making their territory bigger through conquest, and exploiting the resources of the subjugated countries. During the era of New Imperialism, the Western powers (and Japan) individually conquered almost all of Africa and parts of Asia. The new wave of imperialism reflected ongoing rivalries among the great powers, the economic desire for new resources and markets, and a "civilizing mission" ethos. Many of the colonies established during this era gained independence during the era of decolonization that followed World War II.
The qualifier "new" is used to differentiate modern imperialism from earlier imperial activity, such as the so-called first wave of European colonization between the 15th and early-19th centuries.^[1][2] In the first wave of colonization, European powers conquered and colonized the Americas and Siberia; they then later established more outposts in Africa and Asia.

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象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾之的的的的的的的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左上的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側的之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左上的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側的的之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左上的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側的的的之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左上的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側的的的的的的的之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左上的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側之的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側之的的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾之的的的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾之的的的的的的的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側的之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側的的之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側的的的之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側的的的的的的的之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側之的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側之的的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾之的的的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾之的的的的的的的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側的之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側的的之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側的的的之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側的的的的的的的之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左下的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左側之對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的自我的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的注視的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的AVATAR體的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的注視的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左側的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的左右側的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的上下側的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的前後側的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的斜傾側的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的頭頸部的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的顔面體的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的頭丁部的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的顔面體的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的頭部的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的顔面體的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的頸骨的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的男性器的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的心眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的心的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的靈眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的靈的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的意識體的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的意識的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的手眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的手的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的掌眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的掌的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的譬眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的譬的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的腕眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的腕的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的眼的對象的關係的關聯的聯關的解釋的註釋的對象的

 

 

的的及的的徧的的浹的的李健熙的的及的的徧的的浹的的庶子的的及的的徧的的浹的的이서현的的及的的徧的的浹的的洪羅喜的的及的的徧的的浹的的李在鎔的的及的的徧的的浹的的李健熙的的及的的徧的的浹的的無條件的的及的的徧的的浹的的殺害的的及的的徧的的浹的的除去的的及的的徧的的浹的的消滅的的及的的徧的的浹的的持續的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的恒久的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的永久的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的永遠的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的무한(無限) 반복(反復)的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的諸一切的的及的的徧的的浹的的ether醚的的及的的徧的的浹的的體的的及的的徧的的浹的的無關係的的及的的徧的的浹的的dependence (up)on的的及的的徧的的浹的的Pleiades的的及的的徧的的浹的的su·preme的的及的的徧的的浹的的being的的及的的徧的的浹的的Democracy (Greek: δημοκρατία dēmokratía, literally "Rule by 'People'") is a system of government where the citizens exercise power by voting. In a direct democracy, the citizens as a whole form a governing body and vote directly on each issue. In a representative democracy the citizens elect representatives from among themselves. These representatives meet to form a governing body, such as a legislature. In a constitutional democracy the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the constitution limits the majority and protects the minority, usually through the enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, e.g. freedom of speech, or freedom of association.^[1][2] "Rule of the majority" is sometimes referred to as democracy.^[3] Democracy is a system of processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants do, but no single force controls what occurs and its outcomes.
The uncertainty of outcomes is inherent in democracy, which makes all forces struggle repeatedly for the realization of their interests, being the devolution of power from a group of people to a set of rules.^[4] Western democracy, as distinct from that which existed in pre-modern societies, is generally considered to have originated in city-states such as Classical Athens and the Roman Republic, where various schemes and degrees of enfranchisement of the free male population were observed before the form disappeared in the West at the beginning of late antiquity. The English word dates back to the 16th century, from the older Middle French and Middle Latin equivalents.
According to American political scientist Larry Diamond, democracy consists of four key elements: a political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair elections; the active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life; protection of the human rights of all citizens; a rule of law, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens.^[5] Todd Landman, nevertheless, draws our attention to the fact that democracy and human rights are two different concepts and that "there must be greater specificity in the conceptualisation and operationalization of democracy and human rights".^[6]
The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to aristocracy (ἀριστοκρατία, aristokratía), meaning "rule of an elite". While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.^[7] The political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship consisted of an elite class, until full enfranchisement was won for all adult citizens in most modern democracies through the suffrage movements of the 19th and 20th centuries.
Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is either held by an individual, as in an absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy,^[8] are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution.^[
A republic (Latin: res publica) is a form of government in which the country is considered a “public matter”, not the private concern or property of the rulers. The primary positions of power within a republic are not inherited, but are attained through democracy, oligarchy or autocracy. It is a form of government under which the head of state is not a hereditary monarch.^[1][2][3]
In the context of American constitutional law, the definition of republic refers specifically to a form of government in which elected individuals represent the citizen body^{[2][better source needed]} and exercise power according to the rule of law under a constitution, including separation of powers with an elected head of state, referred to as a constitutional republic^[4][5][6][7] or representative democracy.^[8]
As of 2017^[update], 159 of the world’s 206 sovereign states use the word “republic” as part of their official names – not all of these are republics in the sense of having elected governments, nor is the word “republic” used in the names of all nations with elected governments. While heads of state often tend to claim that they rule only by the “consent of the governed”, elections in some countries have been found to be held more for the purpose of “show” than for the actual purpose of in reality providing citizens with any genuine ability to choose their own leaders.^[9]
The word republic comes from the Latin term res publica, which literally means “public thing,” “public matter,” or “public affair” and was used to refer to the state as a whole. The term developed its modern meaning in reference to the constitution of the ancient Roman Republic, lasting from the overthrow of the kings in 509 B.C. to the establishment of the Empire in 27 B.C. This constitution was characterized by a Senate composed of wealthy aristocrats and wielding significant influence; several popular assemblies of all free citizens, possessing the power to elect magistrates and pass laws; and a series of magistracies with varying types of civil and political authority.
Most often a republic is a single sovereign state, but there are also sub-sovereign state entities that are referred to as republics, or that have governments that are described as “republican” in nature. For instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution "guarantee[s] to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government".^[10] In contrast, the former Soviet Union, which described itself as being a group of “Republics” and also as a “federal multinational state composed of 15 republics”, was widely viewed as being a totalitarian form of government and not a genuine republic, since its electoral system was structured so as to automatically guarantee the election of government-sponsored candidates.^[


The term originates from the Latin translation of Greek word politeia. Cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as "republic" (or similar terms in various western European languages).^{[citation needed]}
The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. One of Plato's major works on political science was titled Politeia and in English it is thus known as The Republic. However, apart from the title, in modern translations of The Republic, alternative translations of politeia are also used.^[12]
However, in Book III of his Politics, Aristotle was apparently the first classical writer to state that the term politeia can be used to refer more specifically to one type of politeia: "When the citizens at large govern for the public good, it is called by the name common to all governments (to koinon onoma pasōn tōn politeiōn), government (politeia)". Also amongst classical Latin, the term "republic" can be used in a general way to refer to any regime, or in a specific way to refer to governments which work for the public good.^[13]
In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments. In the late Middle Ages, writers such as Giovanni Villani began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, to describe the states. The terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica.^[14]
While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term res publica has a set of interrelated meanings in the original Latin. The term can quite literally be translated as "public matter".^[15] It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, even during the period of the Roman Empire.^[16]
In subsequent centuries, the English word "commonwealth" came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica.^[17] Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, but the word republic was also in common use.^[18] Likewise, in Polish the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland.
Presently, the term "republic" commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the people rather than from another basis, such as heredity or divine right.^[


Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit.^[1][2][3][4] Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system, and competitive markets.^[5][6] In a capitalist market economy, decision-making and investment are determined by every owner of wealth, property or production ability in financial and capital markets, whereas prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and services markets.^[7][8]
Economists, political economists, sociologists and historians have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free market capitalism, welfare capitalism and state capitalism. Different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership,^[9] obstacles to free competition and state-sanctioned social policies. The degree of competition in markets, the role of intervention and regulation, and the scope of state ownership vary across different models of capitalism.^[10][11] The extent to which different markets are free as well as the rules defining private property are matters of politics and policy. Most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies, which combine elements of free markets with state intervention and in some cases economic planning.^[12]
Market economies have existed under many forms of government and in many different times, places and cultures. Modern capitalist societies—marked by a universalization of money-based social relations, a consistently large and system-wide class of workers who must work for wages, and a capitalist class which owns the means of production—developed in Western Europe in a process that led to the Industrial Revolution. Capitalist systems with varying degrees of direct government intervention have since become dominant in the Western world and continue to spread. Over time, capitalist countries have experienced consistent economic growth and an increase in the standard of living.
Critics of capitalism argue that it establishes power in the hands of a minority capitalist class that exists through the exploitation of the majority working class and their labor; prioritizes profit over social good, natural resources and the environment; and is an engine of inequality, corruption and economic instabilities. Supporters argue that it provides better products and innovation through competition, disperses wealth to all productive people, promotes pluralism and decentralization of power, creates strong economic growth, and yields productivity and prosperity that greatly benefit society


The term "capitalist", meaning an owner of capital, appears earlier than the term "capitalism" and it dates back to the mid-17th century. "Capitalism" is derived from capital, which evolved from capitale, a late Latin word based on caput, meaning "head"—also the origin of "chattel" and "cattle" in the sense of movable property (only much later to refer only to livestock). Capitale emerged in the 12th to 13th centuries in the sense of referring to funds, stock of merchandise, sum of money or money carrying interest.^{[24]:232[25][26]} By 1283, it was used in the sense of the capital assets of a trading firm and it was frequently interchanged with a number of other words—wealth, money, funds, goods, assets, property and so on.^[24]:233
The Hollandische Mercurius uses "capitalists" in 1633 and 1654 to refer to owners of capital.^[24]:234 In French, Étienne Clavier referred to capitalistes in 1788,^[27] six years before its first recorded English usage by Arthur Young in his work Travels in France (1792).^[26][28] In his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817), David Ricardo referred to "the capitalist" many times.^[29] Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an English poet, used "capitalist" in his work Table Talk (1823).^[30] Pierre-Joseph Proudhon used the term "capitalist" in his first work, What is Property? (1840), to refer to the owners of capital. Benjamin Disraeli used the term "capitalist" in his 1845 work Sybil.^[26]
The initial usage of the term "capitalism" in its modern sense has been attributed to Louis Blanc in 1850 ("What I call 'capitalism' that is to say the appropriation of capital by some to the exclusion of others") and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in 1861 ("Economic and social regime in which capital, the source of income, does not generally belong to those who make it work through their labour").^[24]:237 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels referred to the "capitalistic system"^[31][32] and to the "capitalist mode of production" in Capital (1867).^[33] The use of the word "capitalism" in reference to an economic system appears twice in Volume I of Capital, p. 124 (German edition) and in Theories of Surplus Value, tome II, p. 493 (German edition). Marx did not extensively use the form capitalism, but instead those of capitalist and capitalist mode of production, which appear more than 2,600 times in the trilogy The Capital. According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the term "capitalism" first appeared in English in 1854 in the novel The Newcomes by novelist William Makepeace Thackeray, where he meant "having ownership of capital".^[34] Also according to the OED, Carl Adolph Douai, a German American socialist and abolitionist, used the phrase "private capitalism" in 1863.


The rule of law is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as: "The authority and influence of law in society, especially when viewed as a constraint on individual and institutional behavior; (hence) the principle whereby all members of a society (including those in government) are considered equally subject to publicly disclosed legal codes and processes."^[2] The phrase "the rule of law" refers to a political situation, not to any specific legal rule.
Use of the phrase can be traced to 16th-century Britain, and in the following century the Scottish theologian Samuel Rutherford employed it in arguing against the divine right of kings.^[3] John Locke wrote that freedom in society means being subject only to laws made by a legislature that apply to everyone, with a person being otherwise free from both governmental and private restrictions upon liberty. "The rule of law" was further popularized in the 19th century by British jurist A. V. Dicey. However, the principle, if not the phrase itself, was recognized by ancient thinkers; for example, Aristotle wrote: "It is more proper that law should govern than any one of the citizens".^[4]
The rule of law implies that every person is subject to the law, including people who are lawmakers, law enforcement officials, and judges.^[5] In this sense, it stands in contrast to a monarchy or oligarchy where the rulers are held above the law.^{[citation needed]} Lack of the rule of law can be found in both democracies and monarchies, for example, because of neglect or ignorance of the law, and the rule of law is more apt to decay if a government has insufficient corrective mechanisms for restoring it.


Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct.^[1] The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns matters of value, and thus comprises the branch of philosophy called axiology.^[2]
Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime. As a field of intellectual inquiry, moral philosophy also is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory.
Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are:^[1]

1. Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how their truth values (if any) can be determined
2. Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action
3. Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific situation or a particular domain of action^[1]
4. 
   

摩(마)訶(하)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다)心(심)經(경)

觀(관)自(자)在(재)菩(보)薩(살) 行(행)深(심)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다)時(시) 照(조)見(견)五(오)蘊(온)皆(개)空(공) 度(도)一(일)切(체)苦(고)厄(액)
관자재보살(관세음보살)이 반야바라밀다(부처님의 지혜)를 행할때 오온이 모두 비어 있음을 비추어 보시고 하나이자 전부인 온갖 괴로움과 재앙을 건넜다.
舍(사)利(리)子(자) 色(색)不(불)異(이)空(공) 空(공)不(불)異(이)色(색) 色(색)卽(즉)是(시)空(공) 空(공)卽(즉)是(시)色(색) 受(수)想(상)行(행)識(식) 亦(역)復(부)如(여)是(시)
사리자여, 물질이 공(空)과 다르지 않고 공이 물질과 다르지 않으며 물질이 곧 공이요, 공이 곧 물질이다. 느낌, 생각과 지어감, 의식 또한 그러하니라.
舍(사)利(리)子(자) 是(시)諸(제)法(법)空(공)相(상) 不(불)生(생)不(불)滅(멸) 不(불)垢(구)不(부)淨(정) 不(부)增(증)不(불)減(감)
사리자여, 이 모든 법은 나지도 않고 멸하지도 않으며, 더럽지도 않고 깨끗하지도 않으며, 늘지도 줄지도 않느니라
是(시)故(고) 空(공)中(중)無(무)色(색)無(무)受(수)想(상)行(행)識(식) 無(무)眼(안)耳(이)鼻(비)舌(설)身(신)意(의) 無(무)色(색)聲(성)香(향)味(미)觸(촉)法(법) 無(무)眼(안)界(계) 乃(내)至(지) 無(무)意(의)識(식)界(계)
그러므로 공 가운데는 색이 없고 수 상 행 식도 없으며, 안이비설신의도 없고, 색성향미촉법도 없으며, 눈의 경계도 의식의 경계까지도 없으며
無(무)無(무)明(명) 亦(역)無(무)無(무)明(명)盡(진) 乃(내)至(지) 無(무)老(노)死(사) 亦(역)無(무)老(노)死(사)盡(진)
무명도 무명이 다함까지도 없으며, 늙고 죽음도 늙고 죽음이 다함까지도 없고
無(무)苦(고)集(집)滅(멸)道(도) 無(무)智(지) 亦(역)無(무)得(득) 以(이)無(무)所(소)得(득)故(고) 菩(보)提(리)薩(살)陀(타) 依(의)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다)
고집멸도도 없으며, 지혜도 얻음도 없느리라. 얻을것이 없는 까닭에 보살은 반야바라밀다를 의지하므로
故(고)心(심)無(무)罣(가)碍(애) 無(무)罣(가)碍(애)故(고) 無(무)有(유)恐(공)怖(포) 遠(원)離(리) (一(일)切(체)) 顚(전)倒(도)夢(몽)想(상) 究(구)竟(경)涅(열)槃(반)
마음에 걸림이 없고, 걸림이 없으므로 두려움이 없어서 뒤바뀐 헛된 생각을 멀리 떠나 완전한 열반에 들어가며
三(삼)世(세)諸(제)佛(불)依(의)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다) 故(고)得(득)阿(아)耨(뇩)多(다)羅(라)三(삼)藐(먁)三(삼)菩(보)提(리) 故(고)知(지)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다) 是(시)大(대)神(신)呪(주) 是(시)大(대)明(명)呪(주) 是(시)無(무)上(상)呪(주) 是(시)無(무)等(등)等(등)呪(주) 能(능)除(제)一(일)切(체)苦(고) 眞(진)實(실)不(불)虛(허)
삼세의 모든 부처님도 이 반야바라밀다를 의지하므로 최상의 깨달음을 얻느니라. 반야바라밀다는 가장 신비하고 밝은 주문이며, 위없는 주문이며, 무엇과도 견줄 수 없는 주문이니, 온갖 괴로움을 없애고 진실하여 허망하지 않음을 알지니라.
故(고)說(설)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다)呪(주) 卽(즉)說(설)呪(주)曰(왈)
이제 반야바라밀다주를 말하리라.
揭(아)諦(제)揭(아)諦(제) 波(바)羅(라)揭(아)諦(제) 波(바)羅(라)僧(승)揭(아)諦(제) 菩(모)提(지) 娑(사)婆(바)訶(하)（3）
'아제아제 바라아제 바라승아제 모지 사바하'（3）
(Gate Gate paragate parasamgate Bodhi Svaha:가테 가테 파라가테 파라삼가테 보디 스바하)
가자, 가자, 피안(彼岸)으로 가자, 피안으로 넘어가자, 영원한 깨달음이여的的及的的遍的的民主主義的的及的的遍的的