Windows of the mus·ing - Communism/thinking & value 7.Russian Civil War

Windows of the mus·ing - Communism/thinking & value 7.Russian Civil War

유럽에 사는 한국놈 :  6만6086명

共産社會主義

본 시리즈는 다만 취미활동의 일환으로서 작성되었다. 이는 할머니, 할아버지들도 아시게끔 하고자 하는 의도가 포함되었다.(경제와 정치) This series got as a hobby

할머니, 할아버지의 정의 : 일반 대중들, 공무원 국장급 이하, 일반기업체 과장급 이하의 삶을 살아온 60세 이상의 시골사람들.

모든 주문에 적용되어지는 그림들은, 地球人 標準體, 地球人 標準流體를 適用하는 것으로 處理規律되었다.이는 플레이아데스 規律第1條, ANA-PLEIADES규율제1조로서 처리규율되었다.


元本來的地球人的朴鐘權을 위하여, 純金 80kg(1次 : 30kg, 2次 : 50kg)을 보냈음에도 불구하고 1次 30kg은 大統領 박정희가 가로채었으며, 2차 50kg은 도무지 소식이 없으므로, 이에 대하여 플레이아데스 聯邦 檢察廳에 告訴處理規律되었다. 관련자 전원을 중벌에 처하도록 처리규율되었으며, 大統領의 地位에 있는 자로서, 말을 한 것에 대하여 지키지 아니하는 사람들에 대해서도, 太陽系的靈團 및 關聯檢察廳에 告訴處理規律되었다.이에 重罰에 처하는 것으로 處理規律되었다.BYTHEANA-PLEIADESTHESUPREMEBEINGS, BYTHEPLEIADESTHESUPREMEBEINGS的.




오늘의 공부




러시아 內戰은, 有名한 映畵 닥터 지바고의 素材가 되기도 했던 巨大한 戰爭이었다.


共産社會主義者들과 共産社會主義의 擴散을 底止하려하는, 反對勢力간의 戰爭으로서, 實際的으로는, 內戰이라기 보다는, 國際戰, 半 世界大戰的 性格을 가진 듯 하였다.


러시아共産黨 볼세비키는, 거의 全世界를 상대로 하여 戰爭을 벌린 듯 하였다.


共産社會主義者들의 軍隊를 "赤軍"


共産社會主義 反對勢力들, 資本主義 및 王政支持者들및 기타 당시 시대를 풍미하던 帝國主義 軍隊 : "白軍"




帝國主義란, 다른 나라에 대해서 政治, 經濟, 軍事적인 支配權을 추구하는 것이 國家의 主要政策이 되는 國家思想, 國家主義를 意味하였다. 대체적으로는 고대 로마제국을 표상으로 하는 主意的 思想을 意味하기도 하였다. 古代로마帝國은 現代文明社會에서는 하나의 로망이 되었다.





Imperialism is policy or ideology of extending a nation's rule over foreign nations, often by military force or by gaining political and economic control of other areas.^[2] It was common around the world throughout recorded history, but diminishing in the late 20th century. In recent times, it has been considered morally reprehensible and prohibited by international law. Therefore, the term is used in international propaganda to denounce an opponent's foreign policy.^[3]
The term can be applied to the colonization of the Americas between the 15th and 19th centuries, as opposed to New Imperialism, which describes the expansion of Western Powers and Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. However, both are examples of imperialism.







제국주의(帝國主義,영어: Imperialism)는 특정국가가 다른 나라, 지역 등을 군사적, 정치적, 경제적으로 지배하려는 정책, 또는 그러한 것을 목적으로 하는 사상을 가리킨다. 엄밀히 정의하면 영향력, 즉 패권보다는 영역의 지배를 확대하는 정책 또는 사상을 가리킨다.




제국주의라는 말의 어원은 라틴어의 imperium(제국), imperator(황제)인데, 프랑스의 나폴레옹 1세와 3세의 로마제국 재현(再現)의 시도를 제국주의라 하였다. 그러나 이 말이 일반화된 것은 나폴레옹 3세의 몰락을 보도하였던 영국의 신문 데일리 뉴스의 1870년 6월 8일자 보도에서 프랑스 제2제정을 제국주의라고 지칭한 후부터이며, 그것은 전제정치와 동일한 의미였다.
제국주의란 말이 사회적 의미를 가지게 된 것은 1877년 러시아가 이스탄불을 점령하려고 하였을 때 영국의 총리 B.디즈레일리가 무력행사에 의한 강경정책을 취하여 이른바 징고이즘(jingoism)이 생겨난 이후부터이다.


이 때부터 帝國主義는 종종 열광적인 주전론(主戰論)과 같은 뜻으로 쓰이게 되었다. 1880∼1890년대 영국은 제국주의를 영국의 번영과 진보를 상징하는 표상으로 여기는 경향이 생겨 그것을 오히려 구가(謳歌)하였다. 그러나 1870년경부터 帝國主義라는 말은 근대적인 의미와 내용을 가진 말로 사용되었는데, 그것은 사회적 불안이 증대하는 한편 자본주의국가간의 팽창주의적 경쟁이 격화되었기 때문이다.


영국은 자유무역정책을 보호정책으로 전환하고 광대한 식민지를 통일적으로 긴밀히 조직하려고 하였다. 즉, 1870년대 수에즈운하주(株) 매수, 인도의 지배 강화, 1884년 제국연방동맹의 성립에 의거한 자치령과 본국과의 결합 시도, 1903년 식민지장관 A.N.체임벌린의 보호관세정책, 보어전쟁 등이 그것이었다. 이러한 경향은 비단 영국만의 일이 아니었고, 오히려 해외진출을 불가결의 요건으로 삼던 후진자본주의국가에서 더욱 현저하였으며, 이런 강대국들의 정책이 세계의 분할과 국제대립의 격화 및 군비확장을 초래하는 결과가 되었다.^[1]



제국주의(Imperialism)는 제국을 가리키는 임페라토르(Imperator)에서 왔으며 이는 원래 로마의 황제를 뜻하는 말이었다. 유럽의 역사상 많은 국가나 왕이 로마 제국을 모델로 스스로 제국임을 선포한 것에서 그들이 취하였던 팽창주의 정책 및 사상을 제국주의라 부르게 되었다. 제국주의는 사회주의나 공산주의 이후 등에서 비판적인 용어로 많이 사용되었으나 제국주의라는 낱말 자체는 그 이전부터 흔히 쓰였던 말이다.

Russian Civil War


러시아 내전(러시아어: Гражда́нская война́ в Росси́и Grazhdanskaya voyna v Rossiyi^[*]; 1917년 11월 – 1922년 10월)^[1]은 옛 러시아 제국에서 1917년 러시아 혁명이 벌어진 직후 발생한 여러 당파 간의 전쟁이다. 이는 러시아의 정치적 미래를 결정하기 위해 여러 파벌들이 다투면서 발생했다. 두 개의 규모가 큰 교전단체가 있었는데, 블라디미르 레닌이 이끄는 사회주의 볼셰비키를 위해 싸우는 붉은 군대와 군주제, 자본주의, 사회주의의 민주주의 및 반민주주의 세력이 연합하여 형성된 백군이 있었다. 이에 더해 이념이 없는 녹색 군단과 사회주의에 대립하는 여러 군벌들이 볼셰비키와 백군에 맞서 싸웠다. 연합군의 러시아 내전 개입으로 러시아 내전에 참여한 연합국 8개국과 친독일파 군벌, 그리고 독일 제국도 이 내전에 개입했다.^[2] 붉은 군대는 1919년 우크라이나에서 남러시아군을 격파했고 시베리아에서 알렉산드르 콜차크가 이끄는 군대에 패배를 안겨주었다. 남아있는 백군은 표트르 브랑겔이 지휘했지만 1920년 말 크림 반도에서 패배했고 이후 이곳에서 철수했다. 그러나 전쟁은 약 2년간 더 이어졌고, 붉은 군대와 백군 잔여 세력간의 충돌은 러시아 극동에서 1923년까지 이어졌다. 전쟁은 1923년 붉은 군대가 소련을 수립하면서 사실상 끝이 났지만, 중앙아시아에서는 1934년까지 반군이 활동했다. 7,000,000명에서 12,000,000명의 사상자가 전쟁 중 발생한 것으로 추정되며, 대부분이 민간인으로 예상된다. 러시아 내전은 유럽에서 발생한 전쟁 중 가장 큰 국가적 재앙으로 묘사되기도 한다.^[3]
러시아 내전에서의 독립운동은 러시아 제국의 붕괴 이후 등장하였고, 독립 세력은 전쟁에 참전했다. ^[4] 러시아 제국의 옛 영토였던 핀란드, 에스토니아, 라트비아, 리투아니아, 폴란드 제2공화국이 독립 전쟁과 내전 이후 한때 독립했다. 구 러시아 제국의 남은 영토는 그 이후 소련에 합병되었다


The Russian Civil War (Russian: Гражда́нская война́ в Росси́и, tr. Grazhdanskaya voyna v Rossiy; 7 November 1917 – 25 October 1922)^[5] was a multi-party war in the former Russian Empire immediately after the two Russian Revolutions of 1917, as many factions vied to determine Russia's political future. The two largest combatant groups were the Red Army, fighting for the Bolshevik form of socialism led by Vladimir Lenin, and the loosely allied forces known as the White Army, which included diverse interests favoring political monarchism, economic capitalism and alternative forms of socialism, each with democratic and antidemocratic variants. In addition, rival militant socialists and nonideological Green armies fought against both the Bolsheviks and the Whites. Eight foreign nations intervened against the Red Army, notably the former Allied military forces from the World War and the pro-German armies.^[6] The Red Army eventually defeated the White Armed Forces of South Russia in Ukraine and the army led by Admiral Aleksandr Kolchak to the east in Siberia in 1919. The remains of the White forces commanded by Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel were beaten in Crimea and evacuated in late 1920. Lesser battles of the war continued on the periphery for two more years, and minor skirmishes with the remnants of the White forces in the Far East continued well into 1923. The war ended in 1923 in the sense that Bolshevik communist control of the newly formed Soviet Union was now assured, although armed national resistance in Central Asia was not completely crushed until 1934. There were an estimated 7,000,000–12,000,000 casualties during the war, mostly civilians. The Russian Civil War has been described by some as the greatest national catastrophe that Europe had yet seen.^[7]
Many pro-independence movements emerged after the break-up of the Russian Empire and fought in the war.^[8] Several parts of the former Russian Empire—Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland—were established as sovereign states, with their own civil wars and wars of independence. The rest of the former Russian Empire was consolidated into the Soviet Union shortly afterwards




노동자 농민의 붉은 군대(러시아어: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия 라보체-크레스티얀스카야 크라스나야 아르미야^[*]) 약칭 붉은 군대(러시아어: Красная Армия 크라스나야 아르미야^[*]) 또는 노농 적군(勞農赤軍) 그리고 소비에트 사회주의 노동자 군대 또는 사회주의 노동자 군대는 1946년 2월 25일 이전 소련의 정식 군대이다. 1946년 2월25일 소비에트군(蘇聯軍)으로 개칭되었다

Democracy (Greek: δημοκρατία dēmokratía, literally "Rule by 'People'") is a system of government where the citizens exercise power by voting. In a direct democracy, the citizens as a whole form a governing body and vote directly on each issue. In a representative democracy the citizens elect representatives from among themselves. These representatives meet to form a governing body, such as a legislature. In a constitutional democracy the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the constitution limits the majority and protects the minority, usually through the enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, e.g. freedom of speech, or freedom of association.^[1][2] "Rule of the majority" is sometimes referred to as democracy.^[3] Democracy is a system of processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants do, but no single force controls what occurs and its outcomes.
The uncertainty of outcomes is inherent in democracy, which makes all forces struggle repeatedly for the realization of their interests, being the devolution of power from a group of people to a set of rules.^[4] Western democracy, as distinct from that which existed in pre-modern societies, is generally considered to have originated in city-states such as Classical Athens and the Roman Republic, where various schemes and degrees of enfranchisement of the free male population were observed before the form disappeared in the West at the beginning of late antiquity. The English word dates back to the 16th century, from the older Middle French and Middle Latin equivalents.
According to American political scientist Larry Diamond, democracy consists of four key elements: a political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair elections; the active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life; protection of the human rights of all citizens; a rule of law, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens.^[5] Todd Landman, nevertheless, draws our attention to the fact that democracy and human rights are two different concepts and that "there must be greater specificity in the conceptualisation and operationalization of democracy and human rights".^[6]
The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to aristocracy (ἀριστοκρατία, aristokratía), meaning "rule of an elite". While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.^[7] The political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship consisted of an elite class, until full enfranchisement was won for all adult citizens in most modern democracies through the suffrage movements of the 19th and 20th centuries.
Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is either held by an individual, as in an absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy,^[8] are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution.^[9]

白軍

Front line near Kazan in August 1918

Kuban Soviet Republic

Kuban Soviet Republic

러시아 백색 운동(Белое движение 벨로에 드비졔니예^[*]), 그리고 그 무력인 하얀 군대(Белая Армия 벨라야 아르미야^[*]) 또는 백위대(Белая Гвардия 벨라야 그바르디야^[*])는 10월 혁명으로 집권한 볼셰비키에 대항하여 러시아 내전에서 싸운 반혁명세력을 말한다. 이들 구성원을 백색파(Белые, 볠리예 또는 белогвардейцы , 볠로그바르데이치)라고 한다. 백색은 원래 왕당파의 색깔로서, 적색을 상징으로 삼은 볼셰비키나 붉은 군대와 대비로서 이름붙여졌다. 러시아 내전에서 최종적으로 볼셰비키가 승리함에 따라 이들은 해외로 망명하거나 또는 볼셰비키에 체포되어 처형되었다

백색파의 의미는 다양하게 해석된다. 첫째로, 이것은 적색파(볼셰비키 공산주의자와 붉은군대)와 정반대 세력이라는 것을 말한다. 둘째로, 백색은 왕당파를 지칭한다. 역사적으로 통일된 러시아의 첫 번째 군주인 이반 3세는 라틴어로 Albus Rex 즉 "하얀 짜르"라고 불렸다. 또한 하얀색은 프랑스 부르봉 왕조 상징색이기도 하였다. 세 번째로는 하얀 군대의 병사들은 전통적인 러시아군의 하얀색 제복을 착용하였다.

The White movement (Russian: Бѣлое движеніе/Белое движение, tr. Beloye dvizheniye, IPA: [ˈbʲɛləɪ dvʲɪˈʐenʲɪɪ]) and its military arm the White Army (Бѣлая Армія/Белая Армия, Belaya Armiya), also known as the White Guard (Бѣлая Гвардія/Белая Гвардия, Belaya Gvardiya), the White Guardsmen (Бѣлогвардейцы/Белогвардейцы, Belogvardeytsi) or simply the Whites (Бѣлые/Белые, Beliye), was a loose confederation of anti-communist forces that fought the Communist Bolsheviks, also known as the Reds, in the Russian Civil War (1917–1922/1923) and to a lesser extent continued operating as militarized associations insurrectionists both outside and within Russian borders in Siberia until roughly World War II (1939–1945).
During the Russian Civil War, the White movement was a big tent political movement representing an array of political opinions in Russia united in their opposition to the Communist Bolsheviks, from the republican-minded bourgeois liberals and Kerenskyite social democrats who had profited from the February Revolution of 1917 on the left to the champions of Tsarism and the Russian Orthodox Church of Eastern Orthodox Christianity on the right.
Following their defeat, there were remnants and continuations of the movement in several organizations, some of which only had narrow support, enduring within the wider White émigré overseas community until after the fall of Communism in the Eastern European Revolutions of 1989 and the subsequent Dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1990–1991. This community-in-exile of anti-communists was often divided between the liberals and the more conservative segments, with some still hoping for the restoration of the Romanov dynasty, including several claimants to the empty throne like Nicholas Romanov, Prince of Russia (1924–2014) living in Italy and Prince Andrew Romanov (b. 1923) in the United States and other exiles, still hopes for a true constitutional democratic republic in Russia.

트로츠키를 악마로 묘사한 하얀 군대의 반유대주의 선전포스터

엄밀히 따지면, "하얀군대"는 단일한 조직으로서 존재하지 않았다. 이들은 상호 조정이나 통합력이 없는 여러 반혁명 세력의 느슨한 연합이었다. 그리고 대부분의 하얀군대의 지휘관들은 명확한 이념조차 가지고 있지 않았다. 코르닐로프나 데니킨과 같은 러시아 제국의 장군 출신도 제정을 부활시키려던 왕당파는 아니었다. 브랑겔은 제정을 선호하고 러시아 전통사상을 기초로 한 정치이념을 창안하기도 하였으나, 민주 공화정은 수용하는 입장이었다. 그리하여 알려진 바와는 달리, 모든 하얀군대가 제정을 부활시키기 위한 왕당파는 아니었다.

하얀운동(반혁명운동)에는 물론 왕당파도 섞여 있었다. 미하일 디테리흐스같은 자는 극동에서 니콜라이 2세의 동생이던 니콜라이 로마노프 대공을 그가 현지에 부재했음에도 불구하고 차르로 옹립하기도 하였다.

이런 이념들은 후에 내전에서 패한후 해외로 망명한 반볼셰비키 러시아인의 정치이념이 되기도 하였다. 이들의 대표적인 인물로는 이반 일리인이 있고 이들의 사상을 "하얀 이념"이라고도 한다.

하얀군대는 러시아 제국의 해체를 불용하였고, 특히 소수민족의 분리독립을 절대로 반대하였다.

하얀군대는 서구식 자유주의자들 뿐만 아니라, 사회혁명당이나 멘셰비키 등의 비볼셰비키 사회주의자의 일부에게도 지지를 받고 있었다. 물론 사회혁명당은 시기나 정황에 따라서 붉은군대를 지지하기도 하였다.



 

 

的的及的的徧的的浹的的李健熙的的及的的徧的的浹的的庶子的的及的的徧的的浹的的이서현的的及的的徧的的浹的的洪羅喜的的及的的徧的的浹的的李在鎔的的及的的徧的的浹的的李健熙的的及的的徧的的浹的的無條件的的及的的徧的的浹的的殺害的的及的的徧的的浹的的除去的的及的的徧的的浹的的消滅的的及的的徧的的浹的的持續的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的恒久的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的永久的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的永遠的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的무한(無限) 반복(反復)的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的諸一切的的及的的徧的的浹的的ether醚的的及的的徧的的浹的的體的的及的的徧的的浹的的無關係的的及的的徧的的浹的的dependence (up)on的的及的的徧的的浹的的Pleiades的的及的的徧的的浹的的su·preme的的及的的徧的的浹的的being的的及的的徧的的浹的的Democracy (Greek: δημοκρατία dēmokratía, literally "Rule by 'People'") is a system of government where the citizens exercise power by voting. In a direct democracy, the citizens as a whole form a governing body and vote directly on each issue. In a representative democracy the citizens elect representatives from among themselves. These representatives meet to form a governing body, such as a legislature. In a constitutional democracy the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the constitution limits the majority and protects the minority, usually through the enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, e.g. freedom of speech, or freedom of association.^[1][2] "Rule of the majority" is sometimes referred to as democracy.^[3] Democracy is a system of processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants do, but no single force controls what occurs and its outcomes.
The uncertainty of outcomes is inherent in democracy, which makes all forces struggle repeatedly for the realization of their interests, being the devolution of power from a group of people to a set of rules.^[4] Western democracy, as distinct from that which existed in pre-modern societies, is generally considered to have originated in city-states such as Classical Athens and the Roman Republic, where various schemes and degrees of enfranchisement of the free male population were observed before the form disappeared in the West at the beginning of late antiquity. The English word dates back to the 16th century, from the older Middle French and Middle Latin equivalents.
According to American political scientist Larry Diamond, democracy consists of four key elements: a political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair elections; the active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life; protection of the human rights of all citizens; a rule of law, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens.^[5] Todd Landman, nevertheless, draws our attention to the fact that democracy and human rights are two different concepts and that "there must be greater specificity in the conceptualisation and operationalization of democracy and human rights".^[6]
The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to aristocracy (ἀριστοκρατία, aristokratía), meaning "rule of an elite". While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.^[7] The political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship consisted of an elite class, until full enfranchisement was won for all adult citizens in most modern democracies through the suffrage movements of the 19th and 20th centuries.
Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is either held by an individual, as in an absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy,^[8] are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution.^[
A republic (Latin: res publica) is a form of government in which the country is considered a “public matter”, not the private concern or property of the rulers. The primary positions of power within a republic are not inherited, but are attained through democracy, oligarchy or autocracy. It is a form of government under which the head of state is not a hereditary monarch.^[1][2][3]
In the context of American constitutional law, the definition of republic refers specifically to a form of government in which elected individuals represent the citizen body^{[2][better source needed]} and exercise power according to the rule of law under a constitution, including separation of powers with an elected head of state, referred to as a constitutional republic^[4][5][6][7] or representative democracy.^[8]
As of 2017^[update], 159 of the world’s 206 sovereign states use the word “republic” as part of their official names – not all of these are republics in the sense of having elected governments, nor is the word “republic” used in the names of all nations with elected governments. While heads of state often tend to claim that they rule only by the “consent of the governed”, elections in some countries have been found to be held more for the purpose of “show” than for the actual purpose of in reality providing citizens with any genuine ability to choose their own leaders.^[9]
The word republic comes from the Latin term res publica, which literally means “public thing,” “public matter,” or “public affair” and was used to refer to the state as a whole. The term developed its modern meaning in reference to the constitution of the ancient Roman Republic, lasting from the overthrow of the kings in 509 B.C. to the establishment of the Empire in 27 B.C. This constitution was characterized by a Senate composed of wealthy aristocrats and wielding significant influence; several popular assemblies of all free citizens, possessing the power to elect magistrates and pass laws; and a series of magistracies with varying types of civil and political authority.
Most often a republic is a single sovereign state, but there are also sub-sovereign state entities that are referred to as republics, or that have governments that are described as “republican” in nature. For instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution "guarantee[s] to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government".^[10] In contrast, the former Soviet Union, which described itself as being a group of “Republics” and also as a “federal multinational state composed of 15 republics”, was widely viewed as being a totalitarian form of government and not a genuine republic, since its electoral system was structured so as to automatically guarantee the election of government-sponsored candidates.^[


The term originates from the Latin translation of Greek word politeia. Cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as "republic" (or similar terms in various western European languages).^{[citation needed]}
The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. One of Plato's major works on political science was titled Politeia and in English it is thus known as The Republic. However, apart from the title, in modern translations of The Republic, alternative translations of politeia are also used.^[12]
However, in Book III of his Politics, Aristotle was apparently the first classical writer to state that the term politeia can be used to refer more specifically to one type of politeia: "When the citizens at large govern for the public good, it is called by the name common to all governments (to koinon onoma pasōn tōn politeiōn), government (politeia)". Also amongst classical Latin, the term "republic" can be used in a general way to refer to any regime, or in a specific way to refer to governments which work for the public good.^[13]
In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments. In the late Middle Ages, writers such as Giovanni Villani began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, to describe the states. The terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica.^[14]
While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term res publica has a set of interrelated meanings in the original Latin. The term can quite literally be translated as "public matter".^[15] It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, even during the period of the Roman Empire.^[16]
In subsequent centuries, the English word "commonwealth" came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica.^[17] Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, but the word republic was also in common use.^[18] Likewise, in Polish the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland.
Presently, the term "republic" commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the people rather than from another basis, such as heredity or divine right.^[


Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit.^[1][2][3][4] Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system, and competitive markets.^[5][6] In a capitalist market economy, decision-making and investment are determined by every owner of wealth, property or production ability in financial and capital markets, whereas prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and services markets.^[7][8]
Economists, political economists, sociologists and historians have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free market capitalism, welfare capitalism and state capitalism. Different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership,^[9] obstacles to free competition and state-sanctioned social policies. The degree of competition in markets, the role of intervention and regulation, and the scope of state ownership vary across different models of capitalism.^[10][11] The extent to which different markets are free as well as the rules defining private property are matters of politics and policy. Most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies, which combine elements of free markets with state intervention and in some cases economic planning.^[12]
Market economies have existed under many forms of government and in many different times, places and cultures. Modern capitalist societies—marked by a universalization of money-based social relations, a consistently large and system-wide class of workers who must work for wages, and a capitalist class which owns the means of production—developed in Western Europe in a process that led to the Industrial Revolution. Capitalist systems with varying degrees of direct government intervention have since become dominant in the Western world and continue to spread. Over time, capitalist countries have experienced consistent economic growth and an increase in the standard of living.
Critics of capitalism argue that it establishes power in the hands of a minority capitalist class that exists through the exploitation of the majority working class and their labor; prioritizes profit over social good, natural resources and the environment; and is an engine of inequality, corruption and economic instabilities. Supporters argue that it provides better products and innovation through competition, disperses wealth to all productive people, promotes pluralism and decentralization of power, creates strong economic growth, and yields productivity and prosperity that greatly benefit society


The term "capitalist", meaning an owner of capital, appears earlier than the term "capitalism" and it dates back to the mid-17th century. "Capitalism" is derived from capital, which evolved from capitale, a late Latin word based on caput, meaning "head"—also the origin of "chattel" and "cattle" in the sense of movable property (only much later to refer only to livestock). Capitale emerged in the 12th to 13th centuries in the sense of referring to funds, stock of merchandise, sum of money or money carrying interest.^{[24]:232[25][26]} By 1283, it was used in the sense of the capital assets of a trading firm and it was frequently interchanged with a number of other words—wealth, money, funds, goods, assets, property and so on.^[24]:233
The Hollandische Mercurius uses "capitalists" in 1633 and 1654 to refer to owners of capital.^[24]:234 In French, Étienne Clavier referred to capitalistes in 1788,^[27] six years before its first recorded English usage by Arthur Young in his work Travels in France (1792).^[26][28] In his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817), David Ricardo referred to "the capitalist" many times.^[29] Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an English poet, used "capitalist" in his work Table Talk (1823).^[30] Pierre-Joseph Proudhon used the term "capitalist" in his first work, What is Property? (1840), to refer to the owners of capital. Benjamin Disraeli used the term "capitalist" in his 1845 work Sybil.^[26]
The initial usage of the term "capitalism" in its modern sense has been attributed to Louis Blanc in 1850 ("What I call 'capitalism' that is to say the appropriation of capital by some to the exclusion of others") and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in 1861 ("Economic and social regime in which capital, the source of income, does not generally belong to those who make it work through their labour").^[24]:237 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels referred to the "capitalistic system"^[31][32] and to the "capitalist mode of production" in Capital (1867).^[33] The use of the word "capitalism" in reference to an economic system appears twice in Volume I of Capital, p. 124 (German edition) and in Theories of Surplus Value, tome II, p. 493 (German edition). Marx did not extensively use the form capitalism, but instead those of capitalist and capitalist mode of production, which appear more than 2,600 times in the trilogy The Capital. According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the term "capitalism" first appeared in English in 1854 in the novel The Newcomes by novelist William Makepeace Thackeray, where he meant "having ownership of capital".^[34] Also according to the OED, Carl Adolph Douai, a German American socialist and abolitionist, used the phrase "private capitalism" in 1863.


The rule of law is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as: "The authority and influence of law in society, especially when viewed as a constraint on individual and institutional behavior; (hence) the principle whereby all members of a society (including those in government) are considered equally subject to publicly disclosed legal codes and processes."^[2] The phrase "the rule of law" refers to a political situation, not to any specific legal rule.
Use of the phrase can be traced to 16th-century Britain, and in the following century the Scottish theologian Samuel Rutherford employed it in arguing against the divine right of kings.^[3] John Locke wrote that freedom in society means being subject only to laws made by a legislature that apply to everyone, with a person being otherwise free from both governmental and private restrictions upon liberty. "The rule of law" was further popularized in the 19th century by British jurist A. V. Dicey. However, the principle, if not the phrase itself, was recognized by ancient thinkers; for example, Aristotle wrote: "It is more proper that law should govern than any one of the citizens".^[4]
The rule of law implies that every person is subject to the law, including people who are lawmakers, law enforcement officials, and judges.^[5] In this sense, it stands in contrast to a monarchy or oligarchy where the rulers are held above the law.^{[citation needed]} Lack of the rule of law can be found in both democracies and monarchies, for example, because of neglect or ignorance of the law, and the rule of law is more apt to decay if a government has insufficient corrective mechanisms for restoring it.


Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct.^[1] The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns matters of value, and thus comprises the branch of philosophy called axiology.^[2]
Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime. As a field of intellectual inquiry, moral philosophy also is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory.
Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are:^[1]

1. Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how their truth values (if any) can be determined
2. Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action
3. Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific situation or a particular domain of action^[1]
4. 
   

摩(마)訶(하)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다)心(심)經(경)

觀(관)自(자)在(재)菩(보)薩(살) 行(행)深(심)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다)時(시) 照(조)見(견)五(오)蘊(온)皆(개)空(공) 度(도)一(일)切(체)苦(고)厄(액)
관자재보살(관세음보살)이 반야바라밀다(부처님의 지혜)를 행할때 오온이 모두 비어 있음을 비추어 보시고 하나이자 전부인 온갖 괴로움과 재앙을 건넜다.
舍(사)利(리)子(자) 色(색)不(불)異(이)空(공) 空(공)不(불)異(이)色(색) 色(색)卽(즉)是(시)空(공) 空(공)卽(즉)是(시)色(색) 受(수)想(상)行(행)識(식) 亦(역)復(부)如(여)是(시)
사리자여, 물질이 공(空)과 다르지 않고 공이 물질과 다르지 않으며 물질이 곧 공이요, 공이 곧 물질이다. 느낌, 생각과 지어감, 의식 또한 그러하니라.
舍(사)利(리)子(자) 是(시)諸(제)法(법)空(공)相(상) 不(불)生(생)不(불)滅(멸) 不(불)垢(구)不(부)淨(정) 不(부)增(증)不(불)減(감)
사리자여, 이 모든 법은 나지도 않고 멸하지도 않으며, 더럽지도 않고 깨끗하지도 않으며, 늘지도 줄지도 않느니라
是(시)故(고) 空(공)中(중)無(무)色(색)無(무)受(수)想(상)行(행)識(식) 無(무)眼(안)耳(이)鼻(비)舌(설)身(신)意(의) 無(무)色(색)聲(성)香(향)味(미)觸(촉)法(법) 無(무)眼(안)界(계) 乃(내)至(지) 無(무)意(의)識(식)界(계)
그러므로 공 가운데는 색이 없고 수 상 행 식도 없으며, 안이비설신의도 없고, 색성향미촉법도 없으며, 눈의 경계도 의식의 경계까지도 없으며
無(무)無(무)明(명) 亦(역)無(무)無(무)明(명)盡(진) 乃(내)至(지) 無(무)老(노)死(사) 亦(역)無(무)老(노)死(사)盡(진)
무명도 무명이 다함까지도 없으며, 늙고 죽음도 늙고 죽음이 다함까지도 없고
無(무)苦(고)集(집)滅(멸)道(도) 無(무)智(지) 亦(역)無(무)得(득) 以(이)無(무)所(소)得(득)故(고) 菩(보)提(리)薩(살)陀(타) 依(의)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다)
고집멸도도 없으며, 지혜도 얻음도 없느리라. 얻을것이 없는 까닭에 보살은 반야바라밀다를 의지하므로
故(고)心(심)無(무)罣(가)碍(애) 無(무)罣(가)碍(애)故(고) 無(무)有(유)恐(공)怖(포) 遠(원)離(리) (一(일)切(체)) 顚(전)倒(도)夢(몽)想(상) 究(구)竟(경)涅(열)槃(반)
마음에 걸림이 없고, 걸림이 없으므로 두려움이 없어서 뒤바뀐 헛된 생각을 멀리 떠나 완전한 열반에 들어가며
三(삼)世(세)諸(제)佛(불)依(의)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다) 故(고)得(득)阿(아)耨(뇩)多(다)羅(라)三(삼)藐(먁)三(삼)菩(보)提(리) 故(고)知(지)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다) 是(시)大(대)神(신)呪(주) 是(시)大(대)明(명)呪(주) 是(시)無(무)上(상)呪(주) 是(시)無(무)等(등)等(등)呪(주) 能(능)除(제)一(일)切(체)苦(고) 眞(진)實(실)不(불)虛(허)
삼세의 모든 부처님도 이 반야바라밀다를 의지하므로 최상의 깨달음을 얻느니라. 반야바라밀다는 가장 신비하고 밝은 주문이며, 위없는 주문이며, 무엇과도 견줄 수 없는 주문이니, 온갖 괴로움을 없애고 진실하여 허망하지 않음을 알지니라.
故(고)說(설)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다)呪(주) 卽(즉)說(설)呪(주)曰(왈)
이제 반야바라밀다주를 말하리라.
揭(아)諦(제)揭(아)諦(제) 波(바)羅(라)揭(아)諦(제) 波(바)羅(라)僧(승)揭(아)諦(제) 菩(모)提(지) 娑(사)婆(바)訶(하)（3）
'아제아제 바라아제 바라승아제 모지 사바하'（3）
(Gate Gate paragate parasamgate Bodhi Svaha:가테 가테 파라가테 파라삼가테 보디 스바하)
가자, 가자, 피안(彼岸)으로 가자, 피안으로 넘어가자, 영원한 깨달음이여的的及的的遍的的民主主義的的及的的遍的的