Windows of the mus·ing - Communism/thinking & value 2. 共産社會主義

Democracy (Greek: δημοκρατία dēmokratía, literally "Rule by 'People'") is a system of government where the citizens exercise power by voting. In a direct democracy, the citizens as a whole form a governing body and vote directly on each issue. In a representative democracy the citizens elect representatives from among themselves. These representatives meet to form a governing body, such as a legislature. In a constitutional democracy the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the constitution limits the majority and protects the minority, usually through the enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, e.g. freedom of speech, or freedom of association.^[1][2] "Rule of the majority" is sometimes referred to as democracy.^[3] Democracy is a system of processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants do, but no single force controls what occurs and its outcomes.
The uncertainty of outcomes is inherent in democracy, which makes all forces struggle repeatedly for the realization of their interests, being the devolution of power from a group of people to a set of rules.^[4] Western democracy, as distinct from that which existed in pre-modern societies, is generally considered to have originated in city-states such as Classical Athens and the Roman Republic, where various schemes and degrees of enfranchisement of the free male population were observed before the form disappeared in the West at the beginning of late antiquity. The English word dates back to the 16th century, from the older Middle French and Middle Latin equivalents.
According to American political scientist Larry Diamond, democracy consists of four key elements: a political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair elections; the active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life; protection of the human rights of all citizens; a rule of law, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens.^[5] Todd Landman, nevertheless, draws our attention to the fact that democracy and human rights are two different concepts and that "there must be greater specificity in the conceptualisation and operationalization of democracy and human rights".^[6]
The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to aristocracy (ἀριστοκρατία, aristokratía), meaning "rule of an elite". While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.^[7] The political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship consisted of an elite class, until full enfranchisement was won for all adult citizens in most modern democracies through the suffrage movements of the 19th and 20th centuries.
Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is either held by an individual, as in an absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy,^[8] are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution.^[9]

Windows of the mus·ing - Communism/thinking & value.

共産社會主義

본 시리즈는 다만, 취미활동을 목적으로 작성되었다. This series got as a hobby.

산업 혁명은 경제 구조의 혁명적 변화를 가져왔을 뿐만 아니라 동시에 정치 구조도 크게 바꾸어 놓는 결과를 가져왔다. 왕족과 귀족 지배 체제가 무너지고, 신흥 부르주아 계급이 선거법 개정을 달성하였다. 이러한 부주의 활약은 영국에서 노동자 계급의 성년 남성들이 하나로 모여 선거권을 요구한 차티스트 운동이 벌어지게 했다. 이런 일련의 규제가 폐지되면서 점차 자유주의적인 경제 체제로 가게 되었다.
공업화로 농촌 인구의 대부분은 도시로 가게 되었으며, 이로 인해 도시 인구의 폭발적인 증가세를 보였다. 하지만 결국 산업 혁명 때 도시에서는 석탄이 타는 연기로 공기가 나빠졌고, 비위생적이고 악취가 심하며, 사람이 북적대는 불결한 도시로 변한 점이다. 노동자에 대한 인권 유린도 산업 혁명 때부터 대두되기 시작되었다. 공장주들은 노동자들에게 장시간 노동을 강요했고, 소비와 휴식도 크게 제한 받았다. 또한 어린이 노동이라는 비상식적인 일이 벌어지기도 했다.
당시 자본가들은 고아들을 구빈원 이라고도 부르는 고아원에서 감언이설로 유혹해서 데려와서 일을 시켰으며 (아동 노동), 1833년 영국 의회조사에 따르면 지각을 했다고 해서 임금을 깎는 일까지 있어서 영국에서는 어린이 노동을 금지시켰다. 또한 야간 근무를 금지하는 등의 관련 법이 제정되기도 했고, 미국에서는 정부의 탄압과 언론들의 왜곡 보도에도 불구하고, 임금 감축과 장시간 노동에 반대하는 노동자들의 8시간 노동을 요구하는 노동 운동이 일어났다. 식사는 빵과 감자가 거의 전부였으며, 거기에 차와 버터 등이 곁들어지는 정도였다.
산업 혁명기에 발생한 사회 문제 중에는 노동자들의 건강 문제도 있었다. 노동자의 수명은 귀족 계급보다 훨씬 짧았는데, 이를 비위생적인 전염병 때문으로 본다. 이러한 노동자들의 비참한 삶은 자본주의에 반대하는 사회주의 운동의 물결이 일게 하였으며, 이상적 사회주의에 반발한 마르크스의 '과학적 사회주의'정립에 의해서 논리를 갖게 되었다.



산업 혁명은 18세기 말 영국에서 시작되어 세계 근대화의 촉매가 되었다. 그러나 그 변화의 속도는 과장된 점이 있다. 유럽 대륙에서조차 그 충격은 1850년까지는 몇몇 지역에 국한돼 있었다. 거대한 파도가 밀어닥친 것은 1875년 이후였다. 유럽 이외 지역의 산업화는 미국을 제외하면 훨씬 늦게 일어났다. 1895년 독일에서조차 인구의 3분의 1이 아직도 농부였으며, 동유럽과 남유럽의 대부분 지역은 실질적으로 산업과 무관한 지역으로 남아 있었다.^[1]


산업혁명이, 영국을 원본래적 근거지로 하여 일어난 것은 아마도 JEHOVAH 계열의 영향탓으로 추정되었다. 어떤 사람들은, 산업혁명 이전이 더 살기 좋았다고 말하기도 한다.

우리는 산업혁명 이전의 사람들의 삶과, 산업혁명 이후의 사람들의 삶이 어떻게 다른지에 대해서 궁금하다.

산업혁명은, 생산성의 폭발적 비약적 상승효과를 가져 왔으나, 그 반대급부로서 인간의 가치를 더욱 하락시켰으며, 극소수에 의한 부의 독점과 지배, 인권유린의 문제를 남긴다.


문제는 제4차 산업혁명기에 접어든 현대시대에도 반복되는데, 아무리 과학기술과 산업기술이 발전 진보되어도, 사람들의 삶은 그다지 나아지지 않는다는 것에 있으리라.

半導體는 多數의 사람들을 더 가난하게 만들었다.

 

西洋世界의 2大 思想家가 있다면 아마도, 共産社會主義를 提唱한 칼 마르크스Karl Marx 와, 集團的 無意識론을 제창한 칼 구스타프 융Carl Gustav Jung 이라 할 것이다. 묘하게도 이 두 사람은 모두  게르만 계통의 독일인들이었다.

 

共産社會主義를 提唱한 元本來的 나라는 獨逸이었다.(오늘 알았다)

 

물론 獨逸은 國家社會主義(나치Nazi)이며, 現代獨逸은 國家社會主義를 훌륭하게 구현해내고 있는 듯 여겨지고 있다. 많은 사람들이 믿고 있듯이, Nazi 獨逸은 히틀러의 第3帝國만을 의미하는 것은 아닐 것이리라. 우리는 차라리 現代獨逸이 Nazi의 元本來的 思想을 잘 구현해내고 있다고 여긴다.

 

지구상에서 가장 인간성이 더럽고 잔인하고 교활하고 비열한 무리들이 있다면 바로 한국놈들이다.

 

 

 

 

 

 

韓國人李在鎔(삼성그룹 후계자), 삼성그룹회장 李健熙 와 同一한 意識水準에 있는 모든 地球人들을, 僞僞形시켜, HOMINOIDEA로 보내며, 殘忍하고 酷毒한 매질과 채찍질 속에서 5,000년간 살도록 處理規律되었다. ANA-PLEIADES規律第1條, PLEIADES규율제1조로서 處理規律되었다.

카를 마르크스(독일어: Karl Marx [ˈkaɐ̯l ˈmaɐ̯ks][*][12][13]: 1818년 5월 5일-1883년 3월 14일)는 독일의 철학자, 경제학자, 역사학자, 사회학자, 정치이론가, 언론인, 사회주의 혁명가다.
트리어 출신. 대학에서 법학과 철학을 전공했다. 1843년 예니 폰 베스트팔렌과 결혼했다. 정치성 다분한 저술활동으로 인해 마르크스는 무국적자 신세로 수십년 간 영국 런던에서 처자식과 함께 망명생활을 했다. 런던에서 마르크스는 프리드리히 엥겔스와 합작, 대영박물관 열람실에서 연구하며 주요 저작을 남겼다. 그의 대표작은 1848년 출간된 소책자 『공산당 선언』과 3권짜리 『자본론』이다. 마르크스의 정치사상과 철학사상은 그 이후의 사상사, 경제사, 정치사에 거대한 영향을 남겼으며, 마르크스주의라는 일대 학파를 이루어 그 이름은 보통명사, 형용사화되었다.
마르크스의 사회경제정치이론을 집합적으로 마르크스주의라 한다. 마르크스주의에서는 인간 사회가 계급투쟁을 통해 진보한다는 관점을 가지고 있다. 자본주의 사회에서 그 계급투쟁은 지배계급인 부르주아와 피지배계급인 프롤레타리아 사이의 투쟁으로써 나타난다. 부르주아와 프롤레타리아를 가르는 기준은 생산수단을 통제하는지 여부다. 생산수단은 부르주아에 의해 통제되며, 프롤레타리아는 부르주아에게 자신의 노동력을 판매하고 그 대가로 임금을 받는 임노동자로 부려먹힌다.[14] 소위 사적유물론이라는 비판이론에 의해 마르크스는 과거의 사회경제체제들이 그러했듯 자본주의 체제 역시 내재된 모순에 의해 내부적 긴장이 발생할 것이며 그 긴장에 의해 자멸하=고 사회주의 체제라는 새로운 체제로 대체될 것이라 예측했다. 자본주의 체제는 이런 불안정성과 위기취약성을 내재하고 있기 때문에 계급적대가 발생하고, 노동자들이 계급의식을 가지게 된다. 의식화된 노동자들은 정치권력을 쟁취하고, 마침내 계급이 아예 존재하지 않는, 자유로운 생산자들의 연합체로 구성된 공산주의 사회를 이룩할 것이라는 것이 마르크스주의의 골자다.[15] 마르크스는 자신의 예측이 현실화되기를 앉아 기다리지 않고, 노동계급이 혁명적 행동으로써 자본주의를 거꾸러뜨리는 사회경제적 해방을 추구해야 한다고 선동하는 저술·출판작업에 평생 매진했다.[16]
마르크스를 긍정하는 입장에서나 부정하는 입장에서나 모두 마르크스가 인류사상 가장 영향력이 큰 인물 중 하나임을 전제한다.[17] 그의 경제학 저술은 오늘날의 노동 및 노동과 자본의 관계에 대한 이해 대부분의 기초를 놓았다.[18][19][20] 셀 수 없이 많은 학자, 노동조합, 예술가, 정당이 마르크스의 영향을 받았고, 마르크스의 사상을 각자 재독해, 변형, 변용했다. 일반적으로 마르크스는 근대 사회학의 뼈대를 세운 인물 중 하나로 여겨진다.[

프리드리히 엥겔스(독일어: Friedrich Engels, 문화어: 프리드리흐 엥겔스;[1] 1820년 11월 28일 - 1895년 8월 5일)는 독일의 사회주의 철학자·경제학자로 카를 마르크스와 함께 마르크스주의의 창시자 중 한 사람이다. 마르크스와 마르크스주의와 함께, 과학적 사회주의 이론, 변증법적 및 사적 유물론의 창시자이며, 국제 노동자 계급운동의 지도자였다. 독일 라인 주(洲)의 바르멘 시에서 1820년 11월 28일, 방적공장 경영자의 가정에서 출생하였고, 아들이 경영자가 되기를 바라는 부친의 뜻으로 김나지움을 중퇴한 후 브레멘 시의 공장에서 견습으로 근무하다가, 1841년 가을부터는 포병지원병으로 베를린에서 복무하였다. 이 기간에 베를린 대학교에서 청강하였다.
젊은 시절부터 당시 사회의 개혁에 관심을 갖고 그 운동에 참가하였는데, 베를린 체류 중에 청년헤겔학파의 일원이 되었고, 또 베를린 대학 교수였던 셸링의 반동적, 신비적 철학에 대하여 「셸링과 계시」(Schelling und Offenbarung, 1842) 등 여러 논문을 통해 반박하였다. 동시에 헤겔의 보수적 결론, 그 관념론적 변증법의 모순을 비판하기도 하였다.
1842년에 아버지에 의해 그가 경영하던 영국 맨체스터의 공장에서 근무하게 되어, 당시 자본주의가 최고로 발달하였던 영국의 노동자 계급과 접하게 되면서, 그 지독한 경제적 생활상태, 정치적 무권리의 원인 탐구에 뜻을 둠과 동시에 그 당시 전개되고 있던 차티스트 운동의 견해와 운동의 결정을 보고, 그 성과를 『정치 경제학 비판 요강』(A Contri-bution to the Critique of Political Economy, 1844) 및 『영국에 있어서의 노동자 계급의 상태』(Die Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in England, 1845)를 집필하였다. 이들 저서로 프롤레타리아의 위대한 미래와 그들이 담당하는 역사적 사명을 명확히 한 최초의 인물이 되면서 그 자신 확고한 사회주의자로 정립되었다.
영국에서 귀국 도중에 파리에서 마르크스와 만난 후 이들의 확고한 우정과 협력이 계속되었다(1844). 이들은 우선, 1844~1846년에 걸쳐, 공동 저작 『신성가족』(Die heilige Familie)과 『독일 이데올로기』(Die deutsche Ideologie)를 써서, 헤겔, 포이에르바하, 청년헤겔학파 등을 추종하는 자들의 철학적 견해를 비판하고, 동시에 변증법적 사적 유물론의 토대를 쌓았다. 또 후에 프롤레타리아 혁명정당으로 이어진 '공산주의 동맹'을 조직하는 등 실천적 활동을 수행하고, 그 동맹의 강령으로 『공산당 선언』(Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei, 1848)을 발표하였으며, 엥겔스는 그것의 초안인 『공산주의의 원리』(Prinzipien des Kom-munismus)를 쓰기도 하였다.
1848~1849년의 독일 혁명에 적극 참가하였으나, 혁명의 실패로 다시 맨체스터의 공장으로 돌아갔다(1850~1870). 이 혁명 투쟁의 경험을 기초로 하여 『독일 농민 전쟁』(Der deutsche Bauernkrieg, 1850), 『독일에 있어서의 혁명과 반혁명』(Revolution und Kontrarevolution, 1851~1852)을 쓰고, 프롤레타리아 해방투쟁에 있어 동맹자로서 농민이 지니는 의의를 명확히 하였다. 당시 이미 런던에 와 있던 마르크스와 함께 제1인터내셔널을 결성, 이 조직 내의 쁘띠 부르주아적, 기회주의적, 무정부주의적 견해와 투쟁하고, 또 마르크스의 『자본론』의 완성을 도우며, 연구 생활상의 원조에 힘을 기울였다.
이 기간 동안 그 자신은 변증법적 사적 유물론의 견해를 발전시키고, 자연과학에 이 견해를 적용시킴으로써 대단한 성과를 거두었다. 유고(遺稿)인 『자연변증법』(Dialektik der natur)은 그 찬란한 기록이다. 그는 변증법적 유물론의 입장에서 철학의 근본문제를 확정하고, 인식론의 발전에 기여하였으며, 또 사적 유물론의 기계적 이해를 비판하면서, 경제적 조건의 결정적 역할과 함께, 상부구조, 그 속의 이데올로기의 의의, 나아가 역사에 있어 개인이 지니는 의의도 해명하고 있다. 이러한 견해는 『반뒤링론』(AntiDühring, 1878), 『가족, 사유재산 및 국가의 기원』(Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigentums und des Staates, 1884), 『포이에르바하론』(1886)에서 찾아볼 수 있다.
그는 1870년에 런던으로 이주하여 마르크스와 함께 일을 하였으며, 그의 사후(1883)에는 『자본론』 제2~6권의 간행에 몰두하면서, 마르크스 사망 후의 유럽 국가들에 있어 노동운동의 지도적인 중심인물로 활동하였다. 1895년 8월 5일 식도암으로 세상을 마쳤으며 그의 유해는 그의 유지(遺志)에 따라 해저에 가라앉혀졌다.

Friedrich Engels (/ˈɛŋ(ɡ)əlz/;[2][3] German: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈʔɛŋl̩s]; sometimes anglicised Frederick Engels; 28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895) was a German philosopher, communist, social scientist, journalist and businessman.[4] His father was an owner of large textile factories in Salford, England and in Barmen, Prussia (what is now in Wuppertal, Germany).
Engels developed what is now known as the Marxist theory together with Karl Marx and in 1845 he published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations and research in English cities. In 1848, Engels co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Marx and also authored and co-authored (primarily with Marx) many other works. Later, Engels supported Marx financially to do research and write Das Kapital. After Marx's death, Engels edited the second and third volumes. Additionally, Engels organised Marx's notes on the Theories of Surplus Value, which he later published as the "fourth volume" of Capital.[5] In 1884 another major work, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, was published.
Engels died in London on 5 August 1895, at the age of 74 and following cremation his ashes were scattered off Beachy Head, near Eastbourne.

 

 

 

的的及的的徧的的浹的的李健熙的的及的的徧的的浹的的庶子的的及的的徧的的浹的的이서현的的及的的徧的的浹的的洪羅喜的的及的的徧的的浹的的李在鎔的的及的的徧的的浹的的李健熙的的及的的徧的的浹的的無條件的的及的的徧的的浹的的殺害的的及的的徧的的浹的的除去的的及的的徧的的浹的的消滅的的及的的徧的的浹的的持續的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的恒久的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的永久的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的永遠的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的무한(無限) 반복(反復)的的及的的徧的的浹的的處理的的及的的徧的的浹的的諸一切的的及的的徧的的浹的的ether醚的的及的的徧的的浹的的體的的及的的徧的的浹的的無關係的的及的的徧的的浹的的dependence (up)on的的及的的徧的的浹的的Pleiades的的及的的徧的的浹的的su·preme的的及的的徧的的浹的的being的的及的的徧的的浹的的Democracy (Greek: δημοκρατία dēmokratía, literally "Rule by 'People'") is a system of government where the citizens exercise power by voting. In a direct democracy, the citizens as a whole form a governing body and vote directly on each issue. In a representative democracy the citizens elect representatives from among themselves. These representatives meet to form a governing body, such as a legislature. In a constitutional democracy the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the constitution limits the majority and protects the minority, usually through the enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, e.g. freedom of speech, or freedom of association.^[1][2] "Rule of the majority" is sometimes referred to as democracy.^[3] Democracy is a system of processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants do, but no single force controls what occurs and its outcomes.
The uncertainty of outcomes is inherent in democracy, which makes all forces struggle repeatedly for the realization of their interests, being the devolution of power from a group of people to a set of rules.^[4] Western democracy, as distinct from that which existed in pre-modern societies, is generally considered to have originated in city-states such as Classical Athens and the Roman Republic, where various schemes and degrees of enfranchisement of the free male population were observed before the form disappeared in the West at the beginning of late antiquity. The English word dates back to the 16th century, from the older Middle French and Middle Latin equivalents.
According to American political scientist Larry Diamond, democracy consists of four key elements: a political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair elections; the active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life; protection of the human rights of all citizens; a rule of law, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens.^[5] Todd Landman, nevertheless, draws our attention to the fact that democracy and human rights are two different concepts and that "there must be greater specificity in the conceptualisation and operationalization of democracy and human rights".^[6]
The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to aristocracy (ἀριστοκρατία, aristokratía), meaning "rule of an elite". While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.^[7] The political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship consisted of an elite class, until full enfranchisement was won for all adult citizens in most modern democracies through the suffrage movements of the 19th and 20th centuries.
Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is either held by an individual, as in an absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy,^[8] are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution.^[
A republic (Latin: res publica) is a form of government in which the country is considered a “public matter”, not the private concern or property of the rulers. The primary positions of power within a republic are not inherited, but are attained through democracy, oligarchy or autocracy. It is a form of government under which the head of state is not a hereditary monarch.^[1][2][3]
In the context of American constitutional law, the definition of republic refers specifically to a form of government in which elected individuals represent the citizen body^{[2][better source needed]} and exercise power according to the rule of law under a constitution, including separation of powers with an elected head of state, referred to as a constitutional republic^[4][5][6][7] or representative democracy.^[8]
As of 2017^[update], 159 of the world’s 206 sovereign states use the word “republic” as part of their official names – not all of these are republics in the sense of having elected governments, nor is the word “republic” used in the names of all nations with elected governments. While heads of state often tend to claim that they rule only by the “consent of the governed”, elections in some countries have been found to be held more for the purpose of “show” than for the actual purpose of in reality providing citizens with any genuine ability to choose their own leaders.^[9]
The word republic comes from the Latin term res publica, which literally means “public thing,” “public matter,” or “public affair” and was used to refer to the state as a whole. The term developed its modern meaning in reference to the constitution of the ancient Roman Republic, lasting from the overthrow of the kings in 509 B.C. to the establishment of the Empire in 27 B.C. This constitution was characterized by a Senate composed of wealthy aristocrats and wielding significant influence; several popular assemblies of all free citizens, possessing the power to elect magistrates and pass laws; and a series of magistracies with varying types of civil and political authority.
Most often a republic is a single sovereign state, but there are also sub-sovereign state entities that are referred to as republics, or that have governments that are described as “republican” in nature. For instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution "guarantee[s] to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government".^[10] In contrast, the former Soviet Union, which described itself as being a group of “Republics” and also as a “federal multinational state composed of 15 republics”, was widely viewed as being a totalitarian form of government and not a genuine republic, since its electoral system was structured so as to automatically guarantee the election of government-sponsored candidates.^[


The term originates from the Latin translation of Greek word politeia. Cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as "republic" (or similar terms in various western European languages).^{[citation needed]}
The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. One of Plato's major works on political science was titled Politeia and in English it is thus known as The Republic. However, apart from the title, in modern translations of The Republic, alternative translations of politeia are also used.^[12]
However, in Book III of his Politics, Aristotle was apparently the first classical writer to state that the term politeia can be used to refer more specifically to one type of politeia: "When the citizens at large govern for the public good, it is called by the name common to all governments (to koinon onoma pasōn tōn politeiōn), government (politeia)". Also amongst classical Latin, the term "republic" can be used in a general way to refer to any regime, or in a specific way to refer to governments which work for the public good.^[13]
In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments. In the late Middle Ages, writers such as Giovanni Villani began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, to describe the states. The terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica.^[14]
While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term res publica has a set of interrelated meanings in the original Latin. The term can quite literally be translated as "public matter".^[15] It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, even during the period of the Roman Empire.^[16]
In subsequent centuries, the English word "commonwealth" came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica.^[17] Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, but the word republic was also in common use.^[18] Likewise, in Polish the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland.
Presently, the term "republic" commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the people rather than from another basis, such as heredity or divine right.^[


Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit.^[1][2][3][4] Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system, and competitive markets.^[5][6] In a capitalist market economy, decision-making and investment are determined by every owner of wealth, property or production ability in financial and capital markets, whereas prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and services markets.^[7][8]
Economists, political economists, sociologists and historians have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free market capitalism, welfare capitalism and state capitalism. Different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership,^[9] obstacles to free competition and state-sanctioned social policies. The degree of competition in markets, the role of intervention and regulation, and the scope of state ownership vary across different models of capitalism.^[10][11] The extent to which different markets are free as well as the rules defining private property are matters of politics and policy. Most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies, which combine elements of free markets with state intervention and in some cases economic planning.^[12]
Market economies have existed under many forms of government and in many different times, places and cultures. Modern capitalist societies—marked by a universalization of money-based social relations, a consistently large and system-wide class of workers who must work for wages, and a capitalist class which owns the means of production—developed in Western Europe in a process that led to the Industrial Revolution. Capitalist systems with varying degrees of direct government intervention have since become dominant in the Western world and continue to spread. Over time, capitalist countries have experienced consistent economic growth and an increase in the standard of living.
Critics of capitalism argue that it establishes power in the hands of a minority capitalist class that exists through the exploitation of the majority working class and their labor; prioritizes profit over social good, natural resources and the environment; and is an engine of inequality, corruption and economic instabilities. Supporters argue that it provides better products and innovation through competition, disperses wealth to all productive people, promotes pluralism and decentralization of power, creates strong economic growth, and yields productivity and prosperity that greatly benefit society


The term "capitalist", meaning an owner of capital, appears earlier than the term "capitalism" and it dates back to the mid-17th century. "Capitalism" is derived from capital, which evolved from capitale, a late Latin word based on caput, meaning "head"—also the origin of "chattel" and "cattle" in the sense of movable property (only much later to refer only to livestock). Capitale emerged in the 12th to 13th centuries in the sense of referring to funds, stock of merchandise, sum of money or money carrying interest.^{[24]:232[25][26]} By 1283, it was used in the sense of the capital assets of a trading firm and it was frequently interchanged with a number of other words—wealth, money, funds, goods, assets, property and so on.^[24]:233
The Hollandische Mercurius uses "capitalists" in 1633 and 1654 to refer to owners of capital.^[24]:234 In French, Étienne Clavier referred to capitalistes in 1788,^[27] six years before its first recorded English usage by Arthur Young in his work Travels in France (1792).^[26][28] In his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817), David Ricardo referred to "the capitalist" many times.^[29] Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an English poet, used "capitalist" in his work Table Talk (1823).^[30] Pierre-Joseph Proudhon used the term "capitalist" in his first work, What is Property? (1840), to refer to the owners of capital. Benjamin Disraeli used the term "capitalist" in his 1845 work Sybil.^[26]
The initial usage of the term "capitalism" in its modern sense has been attributed to Louis Blanc in 1850 ("What I call 'capitalism' that is to say the appropriation of capital by some to the exclusion of others") and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in 1861 ("Economic and social regime in which capital, the source of income, does not generally belong to those who make it work through their labour").^[24]:237 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels referred to the "capitalistic system"^[31][32] and to the "capitalist mode of production" in Capital (1867).^[33] The use of the word "capitalism" in reference to an economic system appears twice in Volume I of Capital, p. 124 (German edition) and in Theories of Surplus Value, tome II, p. 493 (German edition). Marx did not extensively use the form capitalism, but instead those of capitalist and capitalist mode of production, which appear more than 2,600 times in the trilogy The Capital. According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the term "capitalism" first appeared in English in 1854 in the novel The Newcomes by novelist William Makepeace Thackeray, where he meant "having ownership of capital".^[34] Also according to the OED, Carl Adolph Douai, a German American socialist and abolitionist, used the phrase "private capitalism" in 1863.


The rule of law is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as: "The authority and influence of law in society, especially when viewed as a constraint on individual and institutional behavior; (hence) the principle whereby all members of a society (including those in government) are considered equally subject to publicly disclosed legal codes and processes."^[2] The phrase "the rule of law" refers to a political situation, not to any specific legal rule.
Use of the phrase can be traced to 16th-century Britain, and in the following century the Scottish theologian Samuel Rutherford employed it in arguing against the divine right of kings.^[3] John Locke wrote that freedom in society means being subject only to laws made by a legislature that apply to everyone, with a person being otherwise free from both governmental and private restrictions upon liberty. "The rule of law" was further popularized in the 19th century by British jurist A. V. Dicey. However, the principle, if not the phrase itself, was recognized by ancient thinkers; for example, Aristotle wrote: "It is more proper that law should govern than any one of the citizens".^[4]
The rule of law implies that every person is subject to the law, including people who are lawmakers, law enforcement officials, and judges.^[5] In this sense, it stands in contrast to a monarchy or oligarchy where the rulers are held above the law.^{[citation needed]} Lack of the rule of law can be found in both democracies and monarchies, for example, because of neglect or ignorance of the law, and the rule of law is more apt to decay if a government has insufficient corrective mechanisms for restoring it.


Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct.^[1] The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns matters of value, and thus comprises the branch of philosophy called axiology.^[2]
Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime. As a field of intellectual inquiry, moral philosophy also is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory.
Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are:^[1]

1. Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how their truth values (if any) can be determined
2. Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action
3. Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific situation or a particular domain of action^[1]
4. 
   

摩(마)訶(하)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다)心(심)經(경)

觀(관)自(자)在(재)菩(보)薩(살) 行(행)深(심)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다)時(시) 照(조)見(견)五(오)蘊(온)皆(개)空(공) 度(도)一(일)切(체)苦(고)厄(액)
관자재보살(관세음보살)이 반야바라밀다(부처님의 지혜)를 행할때 오온이 모두 비어 있음을 비추어 보시고 하나이자 전부인 온갖 괴로움과 재앙을 건넜다.
舍(사)利(리)子(자) 色(색)不(불)異(이)空(공) 空(공)不(불)異(이)色(색) 色(색)卽(즉)是(시)空(공) 空(공)卽(즉)是(시)色(색) 受(수)想(상)行(행)識(식) 亦(역)復(부)如(여)是(시)
사리자여, 물질이 공(空)과 다르지 않고 공이 물질과 다르지 않으며 물질이 곧 공이요, 공이 곧 물질이다. 느낌, 생각과 지어감, 의식 또한 그러하니라.
舍(사)利(리)子(자) 是(시)諸(제)法(법)空(공)相(상) 不(불)生(생)不(불)滅(멸) 不(불)垢(구)不(부)淨(정) 不(부)增(증)不(불)減(감)
사리자여, 이 모든 법은 나지도 않고 멸하지도 않으며, 더럽지도 않고 깨끗하지도 않으며, 늘지도 줄지도 않느니라
是(시)故(고) 空(공)中(중)無(무)色(색)無(무)受(수)想(상)行(행)識(식) 無(무)眼(안)耳(이)鼻(비)舌(설)身(신)意(의) 無(무)色(색)聲(성)香(향)味(미)觸(촉)法(법) 無(무)眼(안)界(계) 乃(내)至(지) 無(무)意(의)識(식)界(계)
그러므로 공 가운데는 색이 없고 수 상 행 식도 없으며, 안이비설신의도 없고, 색성향미촉법도 없으며, 눈의 경계도 의식의 경계까지도 없으며
無(무)無(무)明(명) 亦(역)無(무)無(무)明(명)盡(진) 乃(내)至(지) 無(무)老(노)死(사) 亦(역)無(무)老(노)死(사)盡(진)
무명도 무명이 다함까지도 없으며, 늙고 죽음도 늙고 죽음이 다함까지도 없고
無(무)苦(고)集(집)滅(멸)道(도) 無(무)智(지) 亦(역)無(무)得(득) 以(이)無(무)所(소)得(득)故(고) 菩(보)提(리)薩(살)陀(타) 依(의)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다)
고집멸도도 없으며, 지혜도 얻음도 없느리라. 얻을것이 없는 까닭에 보살은 반야바라밀다를 의지하므로
故(고)心(심)無(무)罣(가)碍(애) 無(무)罣(가)碍(애)故(고) 無(무)有(유)恐(공)怖(포) 遠(원)離(리) (一(일)切(체)) 顚(전)倒(도)夢(몽)想(상) 究(구)竟(경)涅(열)槃(반)
마음에 걸림이 없고, 걸림이 없으므로 두려움이 없어서 뒤바뀐 헛된 생각을 멀리 떠나 완전한 열반에 들어가며
三(삼)世(세)諸(제)佛(불)依(의)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다) 故(고)得(득)阿(아)耨(뇩)多(다)羅(라)三(삼)藐(먁)三(삼)菩(보)提(리) 故(고)知(지)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다) 是(시)大(대)神(신)呪(주) 是(시)大(대)明(명)呪(주) 是(시)無(무)上(상)呪(주) 是(시)無(무)等(등)等(등)呪(주) 能(능)除(제)一(일)切(체)苦(고) 眞(진)實(실)不(불)虛(허)
삼세의 모든 부처님도 이 반야바라밀다를 의지하므로 최상의 깨달음을 얻느니라. 반야바라밀다는 가장 신비하고 밝은 주문이며, 위없는 주문이며, 무엇과도 견줄 수 없는 주문이니, 온갖 괴로움을 없애고 진실하여 허망하지 않음을 알지니라.
故(고)說(설)般(반)若(야)波(바)羅(라)蜜(밀)多(다)呪(주) 卽(즉)說(설)呪(주)曰(왈)
이제 반야바라밀다주를 말하리라.
揭(아)諦(제)揭(아)諦(제) 波(바)羅(라)揭(아)諦(제) 波(바)羅(라)僧(승)揭(아)諦(제) 菩(모)提(지) 娑(사)婆(바)訶(하)（3）
'아제아제 바라아제 바라승아제 모지 사바하'（3）
(Gate Gate paragate parasamgate Bodhi Svaha:가테 가테 파라가테 파라삼가테 보디 스바하)
가자, 가자, 피안(彼岸)으로 가자, 피안으로 넘어가자, 영원한 깨달음이여的的及的的遍的的民主主義的的及的的遍的的